
p^'^iojjim 



TO ACCOMPANY 




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Proe HenryH.Rassweiuer, 



WESTERN PUBLISHING HOUSEXHICAGO.IIL 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES Of AMERICA. 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/teachershandbookOOrass 



Teacher's Hand BooK: 



DESIGNED TO ACCOMPANY 



Yaggy's Geographical Study, 

(Copyrighted iS8S, by Wbstern Publishing House.) 



l^ 



PREPARED/feY 



Prof. Henry H. Rassweiler, A. M. 




WESTERN PUBLISHING HOUSE, 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. 



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^ 



INTRODUCTORY 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 



YAGGY'S GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY has been provided for 
3'our use, in your school, for two purposes, namely : 

1. To enable you in Class Exercises or Drills to impart instruc- 
tion in Geography to the very youngest of your pupils, before any 
text-book on the subject has been placed in their hands. The 
" STUDY," which will enable you to proceed on the "object lesson" 
plan will serve to make such class exercises interesting, instructive and a 
most excellent preparation for, and introduction to, their later text- 
book study. 

2. To aid you in illustrating the facts and principles of Geog- 
raphy, as laid down in the standard text-books on the subjects. By 
means of this Study, you can by your own work, and the work of 
your pupils, make plain and interesting the statements and definitions 
contained in whatever books may be in use in your school. 

The object of this Manual is to assist you in the use of the Studv 
for either of the above named purposes. To this end you will find 
in the following pages: i. A course of elementary lessons for the 
primary class drill. 2. Such suggestions or directions, as will help 
you to adapt the use of the Study to the illustrations of the regular 
text-book lessons and recitations. 

This is not a text-book. Nor is it intended to be handled by the 
teacher while conducting a drill or illustrating the facts or principles 
referred to in a recitation. This would entirely overthrow the 
" object lesson" plan of instruction as intended in the use of the 
Study. 

The true idea is this: However limited your experience may be, 
the p/an for an " off-hand " drill, from day to day, is herein placed in 
your hands. This Guide will enable you to make a thorough private 
preparation, to fill your mind with the flan^ the Jac is and the spirit^ 

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of the intended exercise, and then, filled with enthusiasm and furnished 
with the proper method, to go before your pupils and present the les- 
son with confidence and success. 

While the elementary lesson plans given you in this Manual are quite 
complete, it is not designed to discourage you from drawing on your 
own resources of thought and knowledge in conducting your geo- 
graphical exercises. On the other hand, it will be well for you to 
vary them according to your judgment and ability. 

It is not expected that the answers of the pupils, as suggested in the 
exercises, will always be thus given by them, although the plan of 
the teacher's work is so laid down, as being most likely to draw them 
out. These proposed answers are rather intended to show what the 
thought or conception is which you ought to get from your pupils 
before passing on to the next point in the lesson. 

Let the occasional suggestion to write names and outlines of lessons 
on the blackboard, serve to remind you of the importance oi frequently 
using such methods. 

The patrons of your school, in providing you with " Yaggy's 
Geographical Study," have given you rare facilities for instructing 
their children in the important branches of knowledge which it illus- 
trates. They will look for good results. The realization of their 
expectations, w^ill depend on your determination and effort to make 
the best of your opportunities. By an intelligent and regular use of 
the means in your hand, it will be very easy to create such an interest 
among your pupils that your work will be known and appreciated in 
their homes, and thus result in your own profit and advancement. 



(4) 



PART I. 

A. Course of Object Lessons and Elementary Oral Instruction 
in (jeograpliy, for Young Pupils. 



EXERCISE I. 

(on title plat'k of study.) 

FORM, MOTIONS AND SIZE OF THE EARTH. 

T. — What do yoii see in this picture before you? (Pupils will 
give a variety of answ^ers, such as "stars," "the moon," "a big ball" 
or " round ball," and some may have sufficiently developed ideas to 
call this " big ball " the Earth. Now associate in their minds these 
ideas of ttatne and form.) This large, round body represents the 
Harth on which we live. What is its name? 

P.— The Earth. 

T.— What is the Earth? 

P. — The large body on which we live. 

T. — Harry, what is the shape of the Earth? 

H. — It is roimd like a ball or an orange. 

T. — Yes; it is more like an orange than like a perfectly round 
ball. You know an orange is a little bit flattened on its two ends. 
The earth is also a very little flattened on its opposite ends or sides. 
So we say the earth is a large globe or ball very nearly round. (Let 
each one of your pupils mention some round body. Fix in this way 
the idea of the earth's form.) 

T. — As we move about on the earth or look out upon it, it seems 
to stand still. But really it is alwavs moving in two ways. Once a 
day, that is, once in 24 hours, it turns round like this. (Illustrate with 
some spherical object.) Once in a year, or in about 36=51^ days, it goes 
around the Sun. (Illustrate this by passing a ball slowly around some 

(5) 



central object.) When we ride in a carriage, or on a railroad train, we 
can feel the carriage or the car move. But the motion of the Earth 
both in turning round, and in going around the Sun, is so fast and so 
steady, that we cannot in any way feel or perceive it. Now this pic- 
ture shows the Earth, as it flies in its path among the stars, around the 
Sun. Does there seem to be anything to hold it up? 

P.— No. 

T. — No ; it rests on nothing, but moves on from day to day, and 
from year to year, in the same great path in space. What keeps it in 
its path you will learn and imderstand when you are older. In how 
many ways does the Earth move ? 

P.— Two. 

T. — Charles, will you take this ball and show me one way in 
which it moves? (A croquet ball will be convenient.) Edward, will 
you show us the other way ? Now, class, in what time does the 
Earth turn once around? 

P. — In one day. 

T. — In what time does it go once around the Sun ? 

P. — In about 3651^ days, or a year. 

T. — Then, Harry, how many times does the earth turn around 
(this way) in a year ? 

H. — About 3651^ times. 

T. — Does the earth as you look upon it appear to be round like 
this ball on this chart? 

P. — No; it does not. 

T. — That is because we can see only a very small portion of it at 
a time. [Now draw out from the individual members of your class 
as nearly as possible, the extent of their travel over the surface of 
the Earth. This will intensely interest them, and bring out a variety 
of extent of their youthful whereabouts. Develop at this point, 
some idea of distance, say of a mile. Refer, if possible, to points in 
various directions, one mile distant from your school house. Then 
referring descriptively to the Study, drill into their memory, in round 
numbers, the Earth's dimensions, as about S,ooo miles through its 
center, (diameter), and about 25,000 miles around it, (circumference.) 
Re-driil thoroughly on every point developed in this lesson.] 



(6) 



EXERCISE II. 

(on title plate of study) 

DIRECTION, CIRCLES AND ZONES. 

T. — How many know in which direction the sun rises in the 
morning? (Hands up.) All stand and point with your right- hand 
in that direction. Point with your left hand in the direction where 
the sun sets in the evening. Now your face is toward the North, 
your back to the South, your right hand toward the East, and your 
left hand toward the West. Now drop your hands. All point 
North, East, South, West. AW face North, East, South, West. Ellen* 
in what direction is your home from our school house? Yours, Robert? 
(Thoroughly drill in a knowledge of these four cardinal directions.) 
A line passing through the center of the earth, from one side to 
another, is called a Diameter. What is a diameter? (Persevere in 
getting back, or drawing out, a correct definition.) The earth has 
many such diameters. But that diameter or line through the earth 
on which it turns every day is called the Axis of the earth. The two 
ends of this axis are called the Poles. (Refer to chart.) Now what 
do you suppose we call this one toward the north? 

P.— The North Pole. 

T. — Right.' And the opposite one? 

P.— The South Pole. 

T. — Now this great circle passing around the earth midway 
between the poles (trace it on figure) is the Equator. Here, at some 
distance on the north side of the equator this circle (trace it) which is 
called the Tropic of Cancer, passes around the earth. Here, at the 
same distance south of the equator, (trace it) is the Tropic of Capri- 
corn. That part of the earth's surface which lies between these two 
circles is called the Torrid Zone, because it is the hottest part of the 
earth. This circle, at the same distance from the north pole, (trace it) 
is the Arctic Circle. Between this circle and this pole lies the North 
Frigid Zone. Here is the Antarctic Circle. Between this and 
the south pole lies the South Frigid Zone. These zones are called 
frigid because they are the coldest parts of the earth. Between this 
Tropic of Cancer and this Arctic Circle lies the North Temperate 
Zone. Between this Tropic of Capricorn and this Antarctic Circle 
lies the South Temperate Zone. These temperate zones are 

(7) 



neither as hot as the torrid nor as cold as the frigid zones. (Redrill 
thoroughly on all the names and pionts learned in this lesson.) 

Note. — A review of " Direcitons, Circles and Zones," with the subject of Latitude and Longi- 
tude, will be presented as an exercise introduetory to Map Study. 



EXERCISE III. 

(on chart of planetary system.) 

THE EARTH'S PLACE IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 

(review first alt. the points taught in previous lesson.) 

T. — Now let us learn something about the place of our earth 
among the stars. Here is a beautiful map vv^hich shows the heavens 
as they appear to us at night. Many of these stars which you see 
represented here, are. many thousand times larger than our earth. 
They appear so small because they are so far away. This large body 
represents the Sun. This, with all the bodies that revolve around it, 
is called the Solar System. These bodies which move around the 
sun as a center, we call Planets. They have no light and give out 
no light of their own. They get their light from the sun. Notice 
that some of them are much farther from the sun than others. Let us 
learn their names, (Point precisely to the objects referred to.) What 
body is that at the center? 

P.— The Sun. 

T. — Then nearest to the sun is — ? 

P. — Mercury. 

T. — Next to Mercury comes — ? 

P, — Venus. 

T. — Then the third in order is — ? 

P.— The Earth. 

T. — Then comes — ? 

P.— Mars. 

T. — Then beyond Mars — ? 

P. — Jupiter. 

T.— Then— ? 

P. — Saturn. 

T. — Next to Saturn—? 

P. — Uranus. 

T. — Then the farthest out — ? 

P. — Neptune. 



T. — Now, Nellie, which of these phinets is shown to be the 
largest ? 

N. — Jupiter. 

T. — That is right. Jupiter is over a thousand times as large as 
our Earth. Hattie, which of them is shown to be the smallest? 

H. — Mercury. 

T. — Correct. George, how many of these planets are shown to 
revolve around our sun ? 

G.— Eight. 

[Now drill into their memory, while constantly referring to the 
figure, the names and order of distance of these planets in the follow- 
ing order: Sun at the center, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, 
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Then do the same as to the comparative 
size, in this order: Beginning with the largest. Jupiter, Saturn* 
Neptune, Uranus, Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury. Then, removing 
the map, drill from memory on these points, being sure to conclude 
the exercise with a clear view in each pupil's mind of the Earth's place 
and rank in the Solar System.] 



EXERCISE IV. 

(astronomical chart.) 

THE CAUSE OF DAY AND NIGHT. 

(review drill on solar system.) 

T. — What did we learn to be the shape of the Earth? 

P. — It is round like a ball. 

T. — From what body does the Earth get its light? 

P. — From the Sun. 

T. — Now, Mary, if I should hold up this ball, (croquet ball) at 
some distance from a light, on how much of it would the light fall ? 

P. — On only one-half of it. 

T, — Right. Well, Carrie, if the Earth is a round body, and the 
Sun shines on it, how much of it will be in the light? 

P.— Half of it. 

T. — What will then be on the other side? 

P. — Darkness. 

T. That is correct. In the half that is turned toward the Sun 

(9) 



it is Day. In the part which is turned away from the Sun it is 
Night. Now, Frank, can you tell me how it would be if the Earth 
stood perfectly still and did not turn on its axis? 

P. — Half of the Earth would always have day, and the other 
half would always have night. 

T. — That is very correct. But we have learned that the earth has 
how many motions? 

P._Two. 

T. — What motions are these? 

P. — One on its own axis, and one round the Sun. 

ft ' 

T. — Now on account of the Earth's turning steadily about its 
axis, every place on its surface has its tvirn in coming into the light, 
and going out of it — that is, in having morning and evening, or day 
and night. Now let us see how nicely this diagram will show this to 
us. (Refer to " Movable Diagram " on lower left hand corner of 
astronomical chart under figure of Zodiacal Light.) What does this 
represent ? 

p._The Earth. 

T. — And this at a distance from it? 

P.— The Sun. 

T. — What do you notice in the appearance of the sui'face of the 
Earth? 

P. — Half of it is light, and half of it is dark. 

T. — Which side is light? 

P. — The side towards the Sun. 

T. — Why is this side dark? 

P. — Because it is turned away from the Sun. 

T. — Now if the Earth had no motion, this part would always be 
in the light, and this always in the dark; that is, there would be no 
change from what to what ? 

P. — From day to night. 

T. — But now let me sbiow you what the Earth really does. 
(Turn the Earth figure by means of the little finger-catches at the 
bottom.) It moves in this way. Let me turn it once around. In 
■what time does the Earth make such a turn? 

P. — In twenty-four hours, or one day. 

T. — Yes; and we call this its daily revolution. (Now call the 
attention of your pupils to some particular place on the Earth figure. 
Bring it up from below on the right, opposite the word " morning.") 
Now you see this place just coming out of darkness into the light. 
So this must be what to this place ? 

P. — Morning. 

(10) 



T. — So it is. These lines which you see passing around the 
Earth from pole to pole — that is, from north to south, are called 
Meridians. (Dwell on this till the meridian is understood.) Now 
you see when the Earth has turned farther a quarter way round, the 
meridian which passes through this place, has got right under the 
Sun. What time of day must this be? 

p._Noon. 

(Continue this through to " evening " and " midnight.") Notice 
that when this place is at midnight, this place on the opposite merid- 
ian is at noon. (Make this drill still more interesting by locating as 
nearly as possible, _yo«r own place on the Earth, and passing it through 
a full revolution. Persevere until the subject of this exercise is thor- 
oughly mastered.) 



EXERCISE V. 

(astronomical chart.) 

THE CHANGE OF SEASONS. 

(Refer to " Movable Diagram " on right lower corner of Astro- 
nomical Chart under figure of " Meteoric Shower." Trace care- 
fully on the Earth, its axis, the Equator, the Tropics of Cancer and 
Capricorn, and the Arctic and Antarctic Circles. Review the names, 
limits, and the general climate distinction of the Zones. Let this be 
preparatory to the new lesson.) 

T. — As the Earth revolves around the Sun in the course of the 
year, any place on its surface is turned more or less directly towards 
the Sun at different times. That is, at some time in the year each 
part of the surface leans away from the Sun more than at other times, 
so that the Sun's rays strike such a place more or less slantingly. 
Now as the Earth turns on its axis day by day, the more nearly over 
head the Sun is at noon, the more direct and powerful its rays will 
fall upon us, and the warmer it will be. It is in this way that we 
have the different Seasons of the year. How many of you can tell 
how many Seasons there are? (Hands up.) Alice, will you name 
them? 

A. — Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter. 

T. — Now we will make this pretty chart help us to understand 

(11) 



how the Seasons come and go. (Move the sun-slide so that the Sun 
win be directly over the Equator.) Now, class, what is this line 
called ? 

P. — The axis of the Earth. 

T. — And these points at the end of the axis? 

P.— The Poles. 

T. — And this line passing around the Earth midway between the 
poles? 

P. — The Equator. 

T. — Now this represents the time of the year when the Sun 
shines directly upon the Equator. Now when the Earth revolves on 
its axis as we saw it in yesterday's lesson, (reproduce a rotation of the 
Earth on the " Day and Night " diagram,) the Sun at noon will be 
overhead to all places where ? 

P.— On the Equator. 

T. — Notice now that the Sun shines from pole to pole. Now 
when this is so, the day is just as long as the night, and the night just 
as long as the clay in every single spot on the Earth's surface. This 
is the case on or about the 2ist of March, the time of the beginning 
of Spring. Now let us see why we call this Spring. We live 
about here. (Locate as nearly as you can with delicate pointer on 
Earth-map.) All this part of the Earth which lies on this side of the 
Equator, towards the North Pole, is called the Northern Hemisphere. 
This other side towards the South Pole is called the Southern Hemi- 
sphere. Hemisphere means half a sphere, or half of a round body 
like the Earth. (Turn the Sun figure slowly upward.) Now, notice, 
this shows how, after the 21st of March the Sun shines more directly 
from day to day, on places farther from the Equator in the Northern 
Hemisphere. This is the Spring season in this Hemisphere. The 
time when the little blades of grass and the wild flowers spring up 
out of the Earth. This continues until June 21st. ^ At this time the 
Sun has moved to its farthest point northward from the Equator, and 
shines directly on the Tropic of Cancer. This is the beginning of 
Summer. It is now warmer in the Northern Hemisphere, because 
the Sun's rays fall on it more directly than they did when the Sun 
was over the Equator on the 21st of March. Notice now that it 
must be colder in the Southern Hemisphere than before, because, as 
you see, the Sun's rays fall on it much more slantingly; so while it is 
summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern 
Hemisphere. You see also that the Sun shines to a distance beyond 
the North Pole, and, on the other hand, does not shine to the South 
Pole within the same distance. This circle which is at this distance 

(12) 



from the North Pole is the Arctic Circle. On the other side, this 
circle which bounds the distance to which the Sun now shines in the 
Southern Hemisphere, is the Antarctic Circle. Then, after the 2ist 
of Jmic, the Sun moves again, from day to day, nearer to the Equator, 
like this. (Move Sun slowly down.) On the 21st of September, it is 
again directly over the Equator — shines from pole to pole. Day and 
night are again equal. The Sun's effect on the Northern Hemisphere 
is growing less. In the Southern Hemisphere it is getting warmer. 
It is, with us, the beginning of Autumn. 

Still the Sun moves farther south. Notice how much more 
slantingly its rays must fall upon our Hemisphere. On the 21st of 
December it has reached here — its farthest point south. It shines 
directly on the Tropic of Capricorn. In the north its light does not 
reach the pole, but only to the Arctic Circle. In the south its rays 
fall beyond the pole, as far as the Antarctic Circle. This is the begin- 
ning of W^inter. It is the 21st of December. Then the Sun moves 
north again, like this, until the 21st of March, when it shines directly 
on the Equator as it did when we started. 

During these changes which I have shown you the Earth has 
moved once around the Sun, the four seasons have come and gone, 
and a year has passed. 



EXERCISE VI. 

INTRODUCTION TO MAPS AND HEMISPHERES. 

(PLACK BEFORE YOUR PUPILS THE MAP OF THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE.) 

T. — What is this which you see before you? (Point to large 
central figure. You will get a variety of answers, such as *' picture," 
"round picture," " map," and some of the more advanced ones will 
catch the title at the head and tell you it is a " Map of the Eastern 
Hemisphere." Now exercise your teaching skill by weaving into 
exact truth, these ideas drawn out from your pupils.) 

T. — Yes; this is a picture, — a picture of a jjart of the earth's sur- 
face. Such a picture is called a Map. Now, what is a map? 

P. — A picture of a part of the earth's surface. 

T. — And this map as you see above here, is called what? 

P. — Map of the Eastern Hemisphere. 

(13) 



T. — Now we have learned before what hemisphere means. How 
many of you remember? Hands up. What does it mean? 

P. — Half a sphere. 

T. — Right. So this map shows the eastern half of the surface of 
the earth. The map of the Western Hemisphere which we will turn 
to later, shows the western half of the earth's surface. The top of 
a map is always noi"th, the bottom south, the right hand east, and the 
left hand west. What are these circles which pass around the earth 
from pole to pole called ? 

P. — Meridians. 

T. — If you take your ball or an orange and draw lines from top 
to bottom around it, these lines will be to the orange what the meridians 
are to the earth. Since all the meridians come together at the poles 
they are, as you see, farther apart at the equator. Now each one of these 
circles which passes around the earth is divided into 360 equal parts. 
Each of these parts is called a Degree. What does this great middle 
line across this map represent? 

P.— The Equator. 

T. — Since this is a map of a hemisphere, what part of the equator 
does it show ? 

P.— Half of it. 

T. — Then how many degrees from here to here? (Refer to east 
and west points on the equator.) (180) From pole to pole? (180) 
From equator to pole? (90) Maps generally show the meridians 
which are ten degrees apart. You see this map does, and here they 
are numbered, 10, 20, 30, and so on. (Refer to numbers at top or 
bottom of map.) (Trace with delicate pointer, from bottom to top, 
the meridian which passes through London.) This meridian which 
passes through the great city of London, is called the first meridian, or 
the meridian of Greenwich. Do not forget this meridian, for we shall , 
need to know it in a future lesson. Now this meridian, 20 degrees 
west of the London or Greenwich meridian, (trace it along western 
edge of map,) and this one 160 degrees east of Greenwich, (trace it 
along the eastern edge of the map) are just iSo degrees apart, and 
these two meridians divide the surface of the earth into the Eastern 
and Western Hemispheres. (Re-drill all the points of this lesson 
thoroughly into the minds of your pupils.) 



(14) 



EXERCISE VII. 
DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATER. 

(Place before your pupils the map of the Eastern Hemisphere. 
Enlist their interest and attention by asking individual members to tell 
you what is the largest body of water which they have ever seen 
etc.) Do you think there is more water than land on the surface of 
the Earth? (The pupils, who, we assume, are not yet informed, will 
from the nature of their limited observation, reply that there is more 
land than water on the earth.) You have all seen more land than 
water, but there is three times as much water on the Earth as there is 
land. Look at this map. (Eastern Hemisphere.) Remember that 
the colored parts show the land, and the lighter parts the water. 
In this Hemisphere there is not so much difference between the 
amount of land and water. But in the Western Hemisphere, (turn 
to next map for a moment) you see there is much more water than 
land. (Turn back.) Now on this map (upper left hand corner) that 
part of the Earth which lies around the North Pole is shown us. And 
on this (upper right hand corner) we have-4:he Earth's surface around 
the South Pole. What difference do you see on these maps? 

P. — There is more land than water in the northern part of the 
Earth, and more water than land in the southern part. 

T. — Now, let us gather up what we have learned from these 
maps about the land and water. How many times as much water as 
land on the Earth? 

P. — Three times as much water as land. 

T. — Which Hemisphere has the most water, the Eastern or 
Western ? 

P. — The Western Hemisphere. 

T. — Which has the most land, the Northern or Southern? 

P. — The Northern Hemisphere. 



EXERCISE VIII. 

CONTINENTS AND OCEANS. 

(Before Map of Eastern Hemisphere. Call the attention of your 
pupils to the map showing the division of the land into portions — some 
of which are very large and some very small.) 

(15) 



T. — The largest land divisions are called Continents. There 
are three such large divisions. This shows the Eastern Continent, 
which is the largest. It contains more than half the land on the globe. 
(Turn to map of Western Hemisphere.) This represents the Western 
Continent. It is about half as large as the Eastern. (Turn back,) 
Here is the Australian Continent. It is the smallest of the three. 
Now what are the names of the three continents? 

P. — The Eastern, the Western and the Australian. 

T. — What continents are in the Eastern Hemisphere? 

P. — The Eastern and Australian. 

T. — These continents break up the water surface of the earth into 
five great divisions, called Oceans. One of these, as you see here, 
lies around the North Pole. What is the name of it? 

P. — Arctic Ocean. 

T. — And this which lies around the South Pole? 

P. — Antarctic Ocean. 

T. — And here is the Atlantic Ocean. Where does it lie? 

P. — West of the Eastern Continent. 

T. — What is the name and place of this Ocean? 

P. — Pacific Ocean ; it lies east of the Eastern Continent. 

T. — And here is the fifth ocean. What is its name and position? 

P. — Indian Ocean ; it lies south of the Eastern Continent and 
west of the Australian Continent. 

T. — Now we have seen on this map how these five oceans lie 
around these two continents. The Indian Ocean, you notice, lies 
entirely within the Eastern Hemisphere. Now we will turn to the 
map of the Western Hemisphere, and see how the other four oceans 
border on the Western Continent. (Turn to next map.) 

T. — Here they are. Name them as I point to them. 

P. — Arctic, Antarctic, Atlantic, Pacific. (Now drill into the 
understanding of the pupils, the relative positions of the continents and 
oceans by reference to the map, and then drill the same into their 
memory by well varied questions, without the map.) 



EXERCISE IX. 
NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE LAND. 

(Place before your pupils the first diagram illustrating " Physical 
Geography.'^'' Recall the three larger divisions of the land ; that is, 
the Continents.) 

(16) 



T. — Besides the Continents there are other divisions and forms of 
the land, which we will now learn about. Here (referring to chart) 
we have a very pretty picture of the things which we are going to 
study. Remember that the blue and lighter portions of this diagram 
represent water. (Refer to 17.) 

T. — What do you notice about this portion of land ? 

P. — It is entirely surrounded by water. 

T. — Yes; such a body of land is called an Island. What then 
is an Island? 

P. — A body of land entirely surrounded by water. 

T-. — Yes, that's right. It is a place from which you cannot get 
away unless you swim, wade, or go in a boat. Did we not find each 
of the three largest divisions of land to be entirely surrounded by 
water? 

p._We did. 

T. — Then what seems to be the difference between a Continent 
and an Island? 

P. — A Continent is a large body of land surrounded by water, 
and an Island is a smaller body of land entirely surrounded by water. 

T. — (Refer to 18.) Now look at this portion of land. Do you 
* see any difference between this, and this Island? (17.) 

P. — Yes; this is almost, but not quite, surrounded by water. 

T. — That is correct. Such a portion of land is called a Penin- 
sula. -. Let me write this name on the blackboard. What, then, is a 
Peninsula? 

P. — A body of land nearly surrounded by water. 

T. — (Refer to 19.) Here we see a point of this land extending 
quite a distance out into the water. It is called a Cape. You think 
Cape is a strange name for it, I suppose, but you see Cape means the 
end or top-point. Hundreds of years ago people used to call their 
heads Capes, too, because they were the end or top part of the body. 
How, then, would you describe a Cape? 

P. — A Cape is a point or end of the land extending into the 
water. 

T. — (Refer to 20.) Here is another Cape. Do you notice any- 
thing particular about it? 

P. — It seems to be high and rocky. 

T. — Correct. Such a Cape is called a Promontory. What is 
a Promontory? 

P. — A Promontory is a high, rocky Cape. 

T. — (Refer to 21.) What would you say of this narrow strip 
of land? 

« (17) 



P, — It connects together the two larger portions. 

T. — Such a narrow strip of land which connects two larger ^ 
bodies of land is called an Isthmus. Isthmus really means neck, 
and acts for two larger sections of land as the neck acts between the 
head and the body. (Get back from pupils the definition of an Isth- 
mus. Then turn to map of Eastern Hemisphere, and make the les- 
son just learned practical and interesting by pointing out a number of 
real examples illustrating Island: Madagascar, Borneo, Nova Zem- 
bla, etc. Peninsula: Norway and Sweden, Italy, etc. Cape: Good 
Hope, North Cape, etc. Isthmus: Suez, etc.) 



■EXERCISE X. 
NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE LAND. 

(It would be well to p'-epare the way for this exercise with a 
familiar inquiry into the ext jnt of the pupils' observations of hills and ■— 
mountains and the genera' unevenness of the earth's surface. Bring • 
the same diagram used in last lesson as conveniently as possible before 
your pupils.) (Refer to 2, shown in sevei'al places on the diagram.) 

T. — How does this portion of the land appear on this map? 

P. — It is much higher than the land around it. 

T. — Such high portions of the land are called Mountains. Iti 
some places on the earth, they extend in length, many miles. Such "^ 
an extended mountain is called a Mountain Chain. (Refer to i.) 
Here the land is shown to be higher than that around it, yet not near 
so high as this (2) mountain. This (i) is called a Hiil. So how will 
you describe a hill ? 

P. — A hill is a high portion of land, but not so high as a moun- 
tain. 

T. — Some mountains throw out smoke, ashes, cinders and melted 
rock, called lava. Such a mountain is called a Volcano. Here (3) 
is shown a volcano region. Here (4) we see one throwing out great 
masses of this fiery material. This (5) bowl shaped hollow in the top 
of the volcano, from which the lava flows when it is burning is called 
the Crater. This (6) shows several volcanoes in a quiet or simply 
smoking condition. They are said to be slumbering. (Refer to 7.) 

T. — Now look at this portion of land. How does it appear to 
you? 

(18) 



p. — It appears to be quite even. (The teacher will notice how 
* the important faculty of comparison is exercised in the order of study 
here suggested. 

T. — Such an even tract, of land is called a Plain. What is a 
plain ? 

P. — A nearly level tract of land. 

T. — How does this tract of land appear? 

P. — It is also quite level. 

T. — Do you observe anything more about it? 

P. — It appears quite green. 

T. — Right. There are some large portions of our country where 
scarcely any trees are found, but the land is covered with grass. This 
is called a Prairie. (If your school is on a western prairie, this will 
come "near home '^ to your pupils.) Now we will pass to this (8) 
strange looking tract of land. How would you describe its appear- 
ance ? 

Harry. — It is quite level. 

Charles. — It is large. 

Fanny. — It is not green like the prairie. 

T. — What you have observed is all correct. Such a large, level 
tract of land on which neither grass nor trees grow, is called a 
Desert 

Nellie. — But there seem to be a few spots on that desert where 
trees grow. 

T. — You are right, Nellie. Sometimes on deserts such spots 
are found. Such a fertile spot in a desert is called an Oasis. Let 
me spell and write that word on the blackboard. We have now 
learned that deserts and prairies and plains are all large level portions 
of the Earth's surface. Sometimes a plain lies quite high above the 
level of the sea. Such an elevated plain, is called a Plateau. Here 
is a Plateau. (Refer to 12 and show clearly that it is represented as 
elevated considerably above the Ocean, 36.) 

T. — How does this (i i) tract appear to you? 

P. — It is covered with trees. 

(To your inquiry what such a portion of land is called, your 
pupils will likely give the familiar names; grove, woods, timber. 
Teach them now that when a tract of country covered with trees is 
quite extensive, it is called a Forest. (Refer to 13, between mount- 
ains.) Such a tract of land like this, lying between mountains or 
high hills, is called a Valley. George, will you tell me now how 
you would describe a Valley? 

U91 



George. — It is a portion of land which lies between hills or 
mountains. 

T. — In some places where the water rushes down hills or mountains 
with great force, it wears a deep and narrow track in its course,which 
is called a Ravine. Here (14) we have shown such a Ravine. 
When a ravine is very deep, like this one represented here (16) it is 
called a Canon (canyun.) 

[Having thus wrought into the minds of your pupils the distinc- 
tions and definitions of these natural divisions of the land, make a 
practical illustrative reference to their actual occurrence on the Earth 
as shown on the maps. For instance, turn to map of Western Hem- 
isphere, and, tracing the Rocky Mountain system in Western North 
America, show how mountains are represented on a map. Let thi' 
observation of the manner of representation of these various physical 
features be carefully made so that they will meet the quick recogni- 
tion of your pupils in all later work. 

Now turn back all the maps and bring before your pupils the 
" Relief Map of the United States." This for interest as well as 
instruction. One glance at this map will lead into their minds a 
whole train of new ideas. It is not necessaiy to show you in detail 
how to use this to illustrate mountains and mountain regions on the 
Earth's surface. Refer to the great Mississippi region called a Plain^ 
because it is so generally level, or a Valley^ because it lies between 
such high mountains. Tell them that they will learn much more 
from this map in future lessons.] 



EXERICISE XI. 
' NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE WATER. 

(Review what was previously learned about the Oceans — their 
number, names, and position with reference to the Continents. Ex- 
plain that a large body of water next in size to an Ocean is a Sea.) 

T. — In our exercise to-day we will learn about the different bod- 
ies of water as we learned about the different forms of the land in 
former lessons. (Refer to 37.) What do you notice about this body 
of water? 

P. — It is nearly surrounded by land. 

(20) 



T. — Yes; do you remember how we described this (i8) body of 
land ? 

P. — It is almost surrounded by water. 

T. — And what did we call it? 

P. — A Peninsula. 

T. — Right; and a large body of water like this (37) nearly sur- 
rounded by land, is called a Gulf or Bay. Here (38) is a Bay. So 
we will describe a Gulf or Bay, as a large body of water, or part of 
the Ocean or Sea extending into the land. Now here (33) is a body 
of water farther from the Sea. It seems to fill a great hollow place 
in the surface of the Earth, and is, as you see, nearly surrounded by 
land. It is called a Lake. Lakes are always nearly, and sometimes 
quite surrounded by land. Arthur, will you tell us now how to 
describe a Lake? 

A. — A Lake is a body of water at some distance from the Sea, 
and nearly or quite surrounded by land. 

T. — Carrie, what would you call this small portion of land (17) in 
this lake? 

C. — It is an island. 

T. — Why do you call it an island ? 

C. — Because it is a body of land entirely surrounded by water. 

T. — Right. A small lake like this (34) is called a Pond. (Refer 

to 39-) 

T. — George, what do you notice about this portion of water? 

G. — It is a narrow body of water, and it seems to unite together 
two larger bodies of water. 

T. — You have given a very correct description of it. Such a 
body of water is called a Strait. Suppose, Edward, you give us, as 
well as you can, a description or definition of a strait. 

E. — A strait is a narrow body of water which connects two larger 
bodies of water. 

T. — That will do very well. When one of these larger portions 
of water is so shallow that the depth can be easily measured, it is 
called a Sound. This (40, top of chart) represents a sound. (Turn 
to map of North America and show the manner of representation and 
examples of actual location of a Sea: Caribbean. Gulfs: Mexico^ 
California, and St. Lawrence. Bays: Hudson, Baffin, and Cam- 
peachy. Lakes: Superior, Huron, and Michigan. Straits: Behrings, 
Davis, and Hudson. Sounds: Melville and Lancaster.) 

[In these exercises, designed to teach the pupils by the help of 
their own observation (object lesson plan), the important definitions of 
the natural divisions of land and water, the thoughtful teacher will not 

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fail to write each definition, thus drawn out, on the blackboard, closing 
each exercise (mind-drill) with a thorough memorj drill from the 
board^ and finally y^ow memory. '\ 



EXERCISE XII. 

(Call attention to the stream of water shown from top to bottom 
in the middle of the chart, 24.) 

T. — Now I wish you to tell me what you observe about this body 
of water. 

Harry. — It flows through the land. 

Mary. — It grows wider and wider as it flows along. 

T. — Very well. Such a stream is called a River. Charlie, can 
you tell why it grows wider as it flows along ? 

C. — I think it must be because other streams flow into it. 

T. — You are right; here (25, 27, 28,) such streams are shown. 
These smaller streams are called Brooks, Creeks or Tributaries. 
Ellen, will you now describe a river? 

E. — A river is a large stream of water flowing through the land. 
(Blackboard.) 

T. — Willie, what is a brook, creek or tributary ? 

W. — A smaller stream of water flowing into a river. 

T. — Rivers, brooks and creeks generally start from the water of 
a Spring. The place where a river starts is called its source^ and the 
place where it empties into a larger body of water (40) is called its 
mouth. When, in the course of a river, the water falls down over a 
very steep place in its bed, it is called a Falls or Cataract. See 
here, (30) and here, (31) such falls are shown in this river. How 
many of you have seen a river or a creek ? Hands up. (Let them 
state freely their knowledge from their own observation on these 
points. Refer on map of South America to the great Amazon River, 
and its many tributaries.) 



EXERCISE Xm. 

[It is suggested that this exercise be made a thorough review les- 
son on all the natural divisions of the land and the water, as studied 
and learned in the preceding exercises.] 

(32) 



EXERCISE XIV. 

We have now learned about the different land and water divis- 
ions of the Earth's surface. We are now ready to study these natu- 
ral divisions of land and water as they are really found ov^er the 
Earth, as shown us on the maps. But before we leave this beautiful 
diagram from which we have learned so much, we will have one 
more exercise, to learn about some things which men have built on 
the Earth, and which we shall often meet in our future study of 
Geography. Here, (42) for instance, is a Canal. It is not a natural 
body of water like this river (24). This Canal is a water channel 
which has been dug or cut through the country by man. It is built, 
as you see, from one body of water to another, and is made deep 
enough to float quite large boats, which are generally drawn by horses, 
though sometimes they are moved by steam. Here (43) we have 
shown a Railroad. How many of you have seen a Railroad? (Let 
them talk freely about their knowledge of the subject.) A Railroad 
is built, as you see, (trace it) from city to city, or from town to town, 
(44 to 45) sometimes to the length of hundreds of miles. Such places 
on the line of a Railroad are called Stations. The cars are drawn 
by steam power, of which you will learn more as you grow older. 
The railroads of a country carry as passengers, from place to place, 
thousands of people, and many million dollars worth of grain, coal 
and other merchandise. Notice this (46) strange looking structure. 
It represents a strong place built by men for protection in war, 
against the enemies of their country. It is called a Fort or Fortifi- 
cation. Look at this object, (48, lower left hand corner). What do 
you notice about this? 

P. — There seems to be light streaming from it. 

T. — So there is. It is called a Light-house. Such light-houses 
are built at many places on the sea coast and out at sea, to warn the 
sailors against rocks and other dangers. Let us now learn something 
about Cities and Towns. I suppose most of you know what a 
City is. Who can tell? 

P. — A City is a place where many people live. 

T. — Then what about a Town? 

P. — A Town is not so large as a City. 

T. — You are correct. This (44) is to represent a City. This 
(45) smaller place shows a Tozvn. So we will write on the black- 
board: A City is a large collection of buildings and people. A 
Town is a smaller collection of buildings and people. 

Each Country or State has one City or Town in which its chief 

(23) 



ruler or Governor lives, and where the men w^ho make the laws for 
that Country or State assemble. The chief City or Town is called 

the Capital. For instance, the Capital of our Country is ? and 

the Capital of our State is ? Now let us turn to one of the maps 

and see how Cities and Towns are shown there. (Turn to map of 
Europe.) Some maps show the Capital Cities with stars. On these 
maps the Capital of a Country is marked with a blue square. This 
square shows the great Capital of England — London. This, Paris, 
the Capital of France. Down here is Rome, the Capital of Italy. 
Now all these blue circles or dots stand for Cities or Towns. The 
larger a city it represents, the larger the circle. Here, for example, 
are the large cities of Glasgow, and Liverpool in England, shown 
by quite large circles. 

We are now ready to begin the study of the maps. So our next 
exercise will be a lesson on the maps of the Eastern Hemisphere. 

Note. — For the exercises on Map Study which follow, such a selection and^ange of questions 
is proposed, as will lead the pupils to a knowledge of the more important facts which the maps 
represent. The teacher can vary or multiply these questions as may be considered best. It is 
expected that the answers to the questions will be promptly given by the pupils from their obser- 
vation on the map. The answer is herein given in connection with the question only where it is 
considered necessary. After the facts are learned on the " object lesson " plan, the exercise should 
be concluded with a memory test or drill, during which the map should be removed from sight. 



EXERCISE XV. 

THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE. 

T. — Now we will have our first lesson on Map Study. I bring this 
map before you so that you can all see clearly the names of the divi- 
sions of land and water of which we shall speak. Now you will 
please fix your eyes closely on the map, and except when I call on 
any particular one, you will all answer the questions together or in 
concert. Let me see first how well you remember some of the things 
which you have learned before. First about direction. Which direc- 
tion on the map is North ^ 

P. — Toward the top. 

T. — Which direction is South? East? West? 

P. — Towards the bottom of a map is South; toward the right 
hand, East; toward the left hand. West. 

T. — Very well; let us learn more about direction. Direction 

(84) 



towards a point half way between North and East is called North- 
east. Direction midway between South and East is called South-east; 
between North and West, North-west; between South and West, 
South-west. (Use a pointer, — neither a clumsy stick nor a lead pencil. 
Move it across map in all of the eight principal directions.) 

T. — In what direction on the map is my pointer moving? 
(Drill on this thoroughly). 

T. — Now about these circles. What are these great circles which 
pass round the earth from North to South, each one passing throuo-h 
the poles? 

P. — Meridians. 

T.— Hattie, what are the Poles? 

H. — The ends of the Earth's axis. 

T. — David, what is this great circle passing around the earth mid- 
way between the Poles? 

D. — The Equator. 

T. — Now remember, we learned that some of these smaller cir- 
cles passing around the earth from East to West have special names. 
Let us now carefully recall them, for they divide the surface of the 
earth into five great belts or zones. Here at this distance of 235^ 
degrees North of the equator (trace it) is what circle? 

P. — The Tropic of Cancer. (It is thought best not to attempt at 
this stage to teach the children ivhy these circles are so named.) 

T. — And here, at the same distance south of the equator, is what 
circle ? 

P. — The Tropic of Capricorn. (Be sure to trace these circles care- 
fully as you speak of them and point out the name of each on the 
map.) 

T. — What circle is this 235^ degrees from the North Pole? 

P.— The Arctic Circle. 

T. — And this 231/^ degrees from the South Pole? 

P. — The Antarctic Circle. 

T. — Very well. Now, Charlie, can you tell me what belt of the 
earth or zone lies between these two tropic circles? (Trace them). 

C. — The Torrid Zone. 

T. — Yes; and what does Torrid mean? 

C. — It means hot. 

T. — Right. You remember we have learned before that the sun 
shines more directly over this belt of the earth's surface than over the 
rest of the earth, and that it is never overhead at noon at any place 
situated outside of this zone. When we speak of the Climate of a 
country we mean its condition as generally warm or cold, moist or 

(35)- 



dry. Then what may we know of the climate of the countries which 
lie in this Torrid Zone? 

P. — It is very warm. 

T. — Frank, do you remember the name of the zone which lies 
between this Arctic Circle and the Pole? 

F.— The North Frigid Zone. 

T. — And what does Frigid mean ? 

P.— Cold. 

T. — What is the climate of that part of the earth which lies in 
fchc Frigid Zones. 

P. — It is very cold. 

T. — What zone lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arc- 
tic Circle? 

P. — The North Temperate Zone. 

T. — Between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle? 

P. — The South Temperate Zone. 

T. — And what have we learned of the climate of these zones? 

P. — It is neither so hot as in the Torriid Zone nor so cold as in the 
Frigid Zone. 

T. — Distance measured on the Meridians away from the Equator 
is called Latitude. These circles which you see drawn on the map 
from East to West are Parallels of Latitude. Notice how they are 
numbered on the margin, beginning with zero at the Equator and 
running up to ninety degrees at the pole. All places North of the 
Equator are in North Latitude. Those South of the Equator are in 
South Latitude. Do you remember through what large city this 
Meridian (trace it) which is called the " First Meridian " passes? 

P. — Through the City of London. 

T. — By what other name is that Meridian known ? 

P. — The meridian of Greenwich. 

T. — Now please remember that distance east or west from this 
meridian is called Longitude. It is reckoned as far as 180 degrees, 
and a place is said to be in east or west longitude according as it is east 
or west from this Meridian of Greenwich. Now this, our first lesson 
on this map, has been a kind of review of what we have studied 
before. This has prepared you all the better to understand all about 
these great countries (refer to map) which we shall study in our next 
exercise.) 



EXERCISE XVI. 
THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE. 

T. — What does this map represent? 

P. — The Eastern Hemisphere. 

T. — What part of the earth's surface does it shovr ? 

P.— One half of it. 

T. — How many continents did we learn about? 

P.— Three. 

T. — What are their names? 

P. — The Western Continent, the Eastern Continent and the Aus- 
tralian Continent. 

T. — Two of these Continents — the Eastern and the Australian — 
are in this Hemisphere. This great body of land (trace its outline 
represents the Eastern Continent. This (refer to it) shows the Aus- 
tralian Continent. 

On which side of the equator does the Eastern Continent mostly 
lie? The Australian Continent? 

The Eastern Continent is divided into three grand divisions. The 
first of these is Europe. (Trace its name on the map from letter to 
letter. Then its boundary lines and general outline.) The next grand 
division is Asia. (Trace name and outline.) The third grand divis- 
ion of the Eastern Continent is Africa. (Point out carefully.) Now 
what are the names of these three grand divisions? 

P. — Europe, Asia and Africa. 

T. — Which is the largest of these three Continents? 
The smallest? 

What Ocean is north of Europe and Asia? 
What Ocean west of Europe and Africa? 
What Ocean east of Asia? South of Asia? 
What Ocean east of Africa? South of Africa? 
What three Oceans surround the Continent of Australia? 
Which of the grand divisions of the Eastern Continent ex- 
tends farthest West? South? East? 

In Geography we bound a country by telling what other coun- 
tries or bodies of water surround it. Let me give you an example: 
Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by 
Asia, on the south by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the west by the 
Atlantic Ocean. Now bound Europe, all together. 

T. — How is Africa bounded ? 

P. — Africa is bounded on the North by the Mediterranean Sea, on 

(27) 



\ 
the East by the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, on the South by the 
Antarctic Ocean, and on the West by the Atlantic Ocean. 
T. — How is Asia bounded ? Australia? 

What circle crosses the northern part of Asia? 

What great circle crosses Africa? 

Which of these grand divisions is crossed by the Tropic of 
Cancer ? 

Which by the Tropic of Capricorn? 

Does the Antarctic Circle cross any of these divisions? 

In which Zone does nearly all of Europe lie? (North 
Temperate Zone.) Asia? Africa? 

In how many and in what Zones does Africa lie? Australia? 

Which has the warmer climate, Europe or Africa? Why? 
(Now remove map from sight and review what was taught in 
this exercise by a thorough memory drill, making your questions as 
varied as possible.) 



EXERCISE XVII. 
THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 

T. — What Continent is in the Western Hemisphere? (The 
Western Continent.) This Continent is divided into two grand divis- 
ions, as you see. This division is called North America, and this, 
South America. (Point out names and outlines carefully.) 

What Ocean is north of North America? 

East of North America? West of North America? 

East of South America? West of South America? 

South of South America? 

In what direction is the Atlantic Ocean from North America? 

From South America? 

Which Ocean is both North and East of South America? 

How is North America bounded? South America? 

What circle crosses the northern part of North America? 

The southern part ? 

In what Zone then does it mostly lie? 

In what Zone does the greater part of South America lie? ' 

Through what part of South America does the Equator pass? 

In how many Zones does North America lie? 

South America? 

(28) 



Is North America in North Latitude or South Latitude? 

South America? 
P. — South America is partly in North Latitude and partly in 
South Latitude. (Remove map and ascertain your pupils' knowl- 
edge of the Western Hemisphere, by rapid, careful questioning. In 
this review drill, address your questions frequently to single pupils.) 



EXERCISE XVIII. 

(map of EUROPE.) 

COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. 

T. — Now we will study the grand division of Europe. 

In which Hemisphere is Europe? 

In what direction is Europe from Asia? 

From Africa? Bound Europe? 

What country forms about the Eastern half of Europe? 

What countries northwest of Russia? 

What is the most southwesterly country of Europe? (Por- 
tugal.) 

What country east of Portugal? North of Spain? 

What small country north of Germany ? 

Northeast of France? (Belgium.) 

North of Belgium ? (Netherlands.) 

What country south of Germany and Russia? (Austria, 
or Austro-Hungary.) 

What country north of France? 

North of England? 

West of England and Scotland? 
England, Scotland and Ireland together are called Great Britain, 
or the British Islands. 

What small country between Austria and Russia? (Rou- 
mania.) 

South of Roumania? 

South of Bulgaria? 

Between Turkey and Austria? 

South of Turkey ? 

In what part of Europe are Norway and Sweden? 

In what part of Europe is Turkey? Russia? 

(29) 



England? Spain and Portugal? Germany? Italy? France? 
Greece? (Remove the map and apply the memory test.) 



Austria? Greece? 



EXERCISE XIX. 

(map of EUROPE.) 

ISLANDS AND PENINSULAS. 

T. — Harry, what is an island? 

Charles, will you please step to the map and point out a 
number of islands on this map of Europe? As you give me the 
names I will write them on the blackboard. (Head the list, " Some 
of the Islands of Europe.") 

We describe an Island by telling its direction from the main- 
land and by what waters it is surrounded. Let me give you an exam- 
ple: The Island of Nova Zembla is north of Russia. It is surrounded 
by the Arctic Ocean and the Sea of Kara. (Point carefully to each 
island named.) Describe Iceland, Ireland, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, 
Crete, Cyprus, Gothland. 

T. — Laura, what is a Peninsula? 

L. — A body of land nearly surrounded by water. 

T. — We describe a Peninsula by stating from what part of the 
continent it projects (extends) and what waters nearly surround it. 
This Peninsula of Sweden and Norway is called the Scandinavian 
Peninsula. Harry, will you step forward, take the pointer, and 
describe it? 

H. — The Scandinavian Peninsula projects from the northern 
part of Europe, and is nearly surrounded by the Arctic Ocean, the 
Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the Straits of Skager Rack and Cat- 
tegat, the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia. 

T. — Well, that is quite a large numbers of bodies of water sur- 
rounding this peninsula. Mary, do you observe any other peninsula 
on the map ? 

M. — Yes, Spain and Portugal together are a peninsula. 

T. — So they are. Will you take the pointer and describe it? 

M. — The Peninsula of Spain and Portugal projects from the 
southwestern part of Europe, and is nearly surrounded by the Bay of 
Biscay, Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. 
Describe Italy, Crimea, Greece. 

(30) 



EXERCISE XX. 

(map of mUROPE.) 

MOUNTAINS AND CAPES. 

T. — In our exercise to-day, we will learn about some of the 
mountains and capes of Europe. John, what is a mountain? 

J. — A body of land much higher than the surrounding country. 

T. — We describe a mountain by telling in what part of a country 

it is and in what direction it extends. (Refer to Ural Mountains.) 

This mountain range is called the Ural Mountains. Richard, will yow 

describe them? 

R. — The Ural Mountains are in the northeastern part of Russia, 
and extend in a northwest and southeast direction. 

T. — Very well. Notice also that the Ural Mountains through 
about half their length, form the boundary or dividing line between 
Europe and Asia. This part to the east of these mountains belongs, 
not to Europe, but to Asia. 

These mountains between Norway and Sweden are called 
the Kiolen Mountains. (Trace the name, and have one of the pupils 
write the mountain names on the blackboard under the head: " Some 
mountains of Europe.") 

Describe the Kiolen Mountains. The Appennine Mountains. 
Pyrenees Mountains. Carpathian Mountains. Caucasus Mountains. 
(Refer to the Alps Mountains and show your pupils how they form « 
great mountain barrier between France and Italy, Switzerland and 
Italy, Austria and Italy, and partly between Austria and Germany.) 

What is the direction of the Alps Mountains between France 
and Italy? Between Switzerland and Italy? Between Austria and 
Italy? 

What mountains in the southeastern part of Europe? 

What«mountains between Bulgaria and Turkey? 

What mountains must be crossed in going overland from 
France to Spain? From France to Italy? From Switzerland to 
Italy? From Bulgaria to Turkey? 

What mountains in the eastern part of Austria? 

What mountains in the southern part of 'Spain ? 

We have now learned the names and places of ten of the 
largest mountain chains of Europe. Here are their names on the 
blackboard. Let us spell the names from the board. Now I will 



(31) 



remove the map to see how well you can describe these mountains 
from memory. (Memory drill.) 

T. — Harry, what is a cape? 

H. — A cape is a point of land extending into the water. 

T. — Europe has many such capes. We shall not now try to learn 
their names. I will point out only a few. This point of land in 
Europe farthest north is called Cape North. Here is Cape Matapan, 
the most southern cape of Europe. 

Here is Cape Clear. From what country does it extend? 

P. — From Ireland. 

T. — This sharp point of Portugal extending into the Atlantic 
Ocean is Cape St. Vincent. 



EXERCISE XXI. 

(map of EUROPE.) 

SEAS, GULFS AND BAYS. 

T. — What is a body of water next in size to an ocean called ? 

P.— A Sea. 

T. — The map before us shows that Europe has quite a number 
of large seas. In studying these seas we will learn to tell correctly 
where they are situated. Which of the seas of Europe is shown to 
be the largest ? 

P. — The Mediterranean. 

T. — Where is it situated? 

P. — South of Europe. 

T. — That is so far correct. But I wish yovi also to notice that this 
sea divides the grand division of Europe from the grand division of 
Africa. What countries of Europe border on the Mediterranean 
Sea? 

P. — Spain, France, Italy, Turkey and Greece. 

T.— Where is the Black Sea? the North Sea? 

The Caspian Sea? Baltic Sea? White Sea? Sea of Kara? 

Adriatic Sea? Sea of Azov? Ionian Sea? 

What country of Europe borders on the Caspian Sea? 

(33) 



What country north of the Black Sea? West of the North Sea? 

T. — Fannie, what is a Gulf or Bay ? 

F. — A large body of water, or a branch of the ocean, extending 
into the land. 

T.— Where is the Bay of Biscay ? Gulf of Bothnia ? Gulf of 
Genoa? Gulf of Finland? Gulf of Lyons? 

What two countries border on the Bay of Biscay? on the 
Gulf of Bothnia? 

What is the largest sea on the map of Europe? the largest 
Bay? the largest Gulf? 



EXERCISE XXII 

(on map of EUROPE.) 

STRAITS, LAKES AND RIVERS. 

T. — Anna, what is a Strait. 

A. — A Strait is a narrow body of water which connects two 
larger bodies of water. 

T. — For the present we will study only two of the Straits on the 
map of Europe. Here is the Strait of Gibralten What bodies of 
water does it connect ? 

P. — The Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. 

T. — What countries does it separate? 

P. — Europe and Africa. 

T. — Here is another important Sti*ait — the Strait of Bosphorus. 
It connects the Black Sea and the little Sea of Marmora. What two 
grand divisions does this Strait here separate ? 

P. — Europe and Asia. 

T. — George, what is a Lake ? 

G. — A Lake is a body of water nearly or entirely surrounded by 
land. 

T. — Where is Lake Ladoga? Lake Onega? Lake Wener? 

These are a few of the larger Lakes of Europe. Nellie, 
what is a River? 

N. — A large stream of water flowing through the land. 

T. — We will describe some of these rivers of Europe by telling 
through what country or countries they flow and into what body of 

(33) 



water they empty. Here (trace it) is the Volga River. Will you 
describe it? 

P. — It flows through the eastern part of Russia southeastward 
into the Caspian Sea. 

T. — Describe the Ural River. The Dwina, Danube, Dnieper, 
Rhine, Rhone, Tagus, Po, Elbe. 

Which of these rivers forms a part of the boundary between 
Europe and Asia? 

Let us recall the names of the ten Rivers of which we have 
learned in this exercise and make an outline of them on. the board. 
Please name them for me. See whether I spell them correctly. 
(Make the following outline): 



Name of River? 




Flows Through or 

Between what 

Col xtries? 

Russia 

Between Russia ) 
and Asia. ) 

Ru«sia 

Germany, Austria "] 
and between i 
Roumania and | 
Bulgaria. J 

Russia 

Germany.. 

France 

Spain 

Italy 

Germany 



General Direction? 


Empties Into ? 


Southeast _. 

Soutli . 


Caspian Sea. 
Caspian Sea. 
White Sea. 

Black Sea. 


Northwest 

East 


South 

North. 


Black Sea. 
North Sea. 


South 


Gulf of Lyons. 
Atlantic Ocean. 


West 


East .. . 


Adriatic Sea, 


Northwest 


North Sea. 



Note. — Next in the proper order of lessons of Europe would be some exercises on its 
Countries, People, Governments, Climate, Industries and Productions. It is thought best, how 
ever, at this stag-e of the work, to present several exercises, preparatory to the study of these 
subjects, from the " Map of Zones." This will fit the pupils for a more interesting^ and intelligent 
study of the Countries of the Old World. i 



EXERCISE XXm. 



(BRING BEFORE YOUR PUPILS THE MAP OF EUROPE.) 



T. — We have now learned something about the divisions of land 
and water on this map of Europe. We must learn some more about 
these great countries and their people. But before we study these, 
we will have a few lessons to teach you something about the different 



(34) 



kinds of people in the world — how they live, how they are governed, 
and what they do. Now I am going to turn to a very interesting 
map which we will study to-day, (Turn to the map of " The Five 
Zones.") 

Here we have a beautiful illustration of the variety of people 
living on the earth in the different zones. By the way, since this pic- 
ture represents the surface of the earth-globe, what would a line from 
side to side right through its center show ? 

P. — The Equator. 

T. — Yes, and what does this first circle above the center repre- 
sent? 

P. — The Tropic of Cancer. 

T. — And this one as far below? 

P. — The Tropic of Capricorn. 

T. — Then what zone is shown in this middle belt? 

P. — The Torrid Zone. 

T. — Right. We have learned before that the climate of this 
zone is hot. In most parts of this zone it is also very moist. Now 
heat and moisture are very favorable to the growth of all kinds of 
trees and plants. The trees and plants of a country are called its veo-- 
etation or flora. Now what would you expect to find about the trees 
and plants of the Torrid Zone? 

P. — They must be very numerous and large. 

T. — You are right. The tropical forests are very thick, the trees 
are generally covered with rich and beautiful foliage, and many of the 
finest fruits grow in this zone. This map shows many of these thrifty 
trees and plants. 

The animals of this zone are generally of a wild nature and many 
of them are very Urge and fierce. Beautiful birds have their homes 
in these tropical forests; but while their plumage is so beautiful, very 
few of them sing as birds do in the zone in which we live. The 
people who live in this zone are, generally, not so active and intelli- 
gent as those of the Temperate Zones. On account of the great heat 
of the climate, many of the people wear but scanty clothing, and their 
homes are very simple and inferior buildings, as you see this map- 
picture shows. 

[Let the pupils ask questions suggested to them by this zone 
picture. Encourage them in so doing. Make all exercises of this 
kind conversational, simple and familiar. Then extend or conclude 
the exercise with such questions of your own as will draw out from 
them or bring to their minds afresh, the facts learned in this lesson.] 

(35) 



EXERCISE XXIV. 
THE NORTH TEMPERATE 2:0NE. 

T. — Where is the North Temperate Zone ? 

P. — Between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle? 

T. — Robert, where is the South Temperate Zone ? 

R. — Between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle. 

T. — Correct. This belt (refer to it on the map) gives us a good 
idea of what is found in the North Temperate Zone. Carrie, what 
did we^ learn about the climate of the Temperate Zones? 

C. — It is neither so hot as in the Torrid Zone nor so cold as in 
the Frigid Zone. 

T. — Yes. For that reason these zones are called Temperate, 
which means moi-e mild or moderate. While the trees and plants of 
this zone are not so large and abundant as in the Torrid Zone, yet 
there are very large forests found which furnish a great abundance of 
timber and lumber. Many kinds of grain grow in this zone. All 
kinds of grass grow here, furnishing pasture and food for large herds 
of cattle. The finest farms in the world are in the Temperate Zones. 
Some of these, you see, are shown in this picture (near left hand side 
of " North Temperate Zone.") Lora, do you notice anything shown 
in this zone that is quite different from that which is shown in the 
Torrid Zone? 

L. — I notice that there are very many large and beautiful build- 
ings. 

T. — Yes. The most intelligent people of the world live in this 
zone. They are generally well educated and live in very comfortable 
homes. They build large business houses, elegant public buildings 
and beautiful churches. Thomas, do you notice, particularly, anything, 
else in the picture of this zone? 

T. — I see steamboats on the water and railroad trains on tne land 

T. — Yes. The people of the countries of this zone make a great 
many useful articles and raise a great deal of grain and other products 
on their farms. Many of these things they sell to each other, or to 
the people of other countries, and get in exchange other articles which 
they may want and do not have. Such an exchange of things is 
called Trade or Commerce. Besides, the people of the countries 
of this zone travel a great deal from place to place, both for pleasure 
and for business purposes. So ships and steamboats are going up" and- 
down, back and forth, on all large waters, and many railroads cross 

(36) 



some countries in all directions. Mary, do you see anything which 
you would like to speak of in this picture? 

M. — I see some wheels and some other machines and some book^ 
in the picture ? 

T. — Yes. The people of many of the countries of this zone are 
very skillful and inventive. That is, they find out how to make a 
great many useful machines by which they can make the finest kind 
of articles in a very short time and with much less labor than they 
could make them by hand. The books show that the people are 
intelligent and that they love knowledge. They are also very fond of 
Art. The finest pictures and other works of Art that are found in 
the world have been made by the people of the Temperate Zone. 



EXERCISE XXV. 
THE SOUTH TEMPERATE AND FRIGID ZONES. 

(zone map.) 

T. — What can you say of the climate of the South Temperate 
zone ? 

P. — It must be much like that of the North Temperate Zone. 

T. — Yes; so it is. Does the picture seem to show that the people 
of this zone are as active and progressive as the peoj^le of the North 
Temperate Zone. 

P. — It does not. 

T. — What does it show ? 

P. — There seems to be fewer large buildings and many cattle. 

T. — Yes; there are some fine farms, and many fine cattle and 
sheep are raised. Besides, there are many wild cattle found in this 
zone. We shall speak about some of the other things shown here 
when we study the countries which lie in this zone. We will now 
learn about the Frigid Zones. What can you say of these Zones ? 

P. — They are very cold. 

T. — Right; the earth in these zones seems to be covered every- 
where with ice and snow. Tell me some of the things you notice 
about these pictures of the Frigid Zones. 

P. — There are no ti-ees nor plants there. 

T. — No; there are no trees in these zones and scarcely any plants; 

(3V) 



only a few kinds of mosses grow there. Charles, how do the people 
seem to travel there ? 

C. — I see a man in the picture riding in a sled. 

T. — Yes; and the animal which is drawing the sled is a reindeer. 
That is the way these people travel. There are no horses, railroads 
nor steamboats there. 

Harry. — The people seem to wear very thick clothes. 

T. — Yes; they are dressed in heavy skins and furs to protect 
them against the great cold. 

Ethel. — They don't seem to have any houses. 

T. — No; they live in huts built of ice and snow. Here you see 
a man going into his hut. How strange to see a man creep into his 
house just as a dog crawls into his kennel. 

Mary. — What are those high things which look like great walls, 
in the picture ? 

T. — Those are great masses of ice. Thev are called Icebergs. 
This word means mountains of ice. 

Edith. — I see no people in the picture of the South Frigid Zone. 

T. — There are no people living in that Zone. These birds which 
you see in the picture, are water birds, and these large animals also 
live in the water. Since there are no trees or plants in these Zones, 
what must be the food of these people in the North Frigid Zone 

Harry. — I suppose they eat the flesh of animals. 

T. — That is right. They are very fond of fatty food, and would 
eat a tallow candle with as much relish as you would eat a stick of 
candy. 

Fred. — I should like to Know what the animals eat. 

T. — Well, Freddie, that is a very fair question. Some of them 
eat the scanty mosses which grow in some places. But most of them 
feed on smaller animals which they take from the water. Even the 
bears catch fish. 



EXERCISE XXVI. 
THE FIVE RACES OF MEN. 

(zonk map.) 

T. — We have already seen that the people of the Earth are very 
different in their appearance and way of living. They are divided 

(38) 



into five great divisions called RaceS. Each of these differs from 
the rest in color. The first race is the Caucasian. The Caucasian 
people are spread over a large part of the Earth. Here is a group of 
heads showing specimen people of the Caucasian race. (Refer to 
group just above center of map.) They are the most handsome, act- 
ive, wise and powerful people in the world. Their color is white, 
the shape of the head round or oval ; the hair soft and of various col- 
ors. It will help us to remember these different features if I write 
them on the blackboard. (Here start the outline following this exer- 
cise, so far as learned.) 

Next comes the Mongolian Race. Here are shown three spec- 
imens of this race. We shall find out more about this people when 
we come to study the countries of Asia. They are of a yellow color 
Their heads are broad. Their hair is straight, coarse and black. 
Their eyes are small and slanting. Now I will write these features 
of the Mongolian Race in this outline. Please give them to me as I 
call them. Color? Shape of Head? Hair? Eyes? 

The third race is the Malay Race. The chart shows us eight 
different specimens of Malayans. (Point them out. Those named 
" Australian," are to be classed with the " Malayans.") They are a 
very peculiar looking people. They live mostly in South Eastern 
Asia and on the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. They are of a brown 
color, as these pictures clearly show. Their heads are broad like those 
of the Mongolians, but their hair is not so coarse and straight. Their 
lips are thick. (Write Malayan Race outline on board.) 

Next comes the Negro Race. Here are three very good speci- 
mens. These people live mostly in Africa. There are, however, 
quite a number in our country. How many of you have seen a Ne- 
gro. Hands up. These people were first brought to this country as 
slaves. They are black in color; head narrow and long, as you see; 
hair crisp and curly; lips very thick. (Write Negro Race outline on 
board.) The last of the five races is the American or Indian 
Race. We have six specimens before us, and a strange looking 
people they are. (Point them out.) They are red or copper-colored. 
Head round ; hair black, coarse and straight. Before the white people 
came to this country, it was the Indian's home. (Complete outline on 
board. Request your pupils to copy it on paper, or, better, into a 
" Geographical Note Book," from which it should be carefully com- 
mitted to memory.) 



(39) 



RACES OF MEN. 





CXDLOR. 


SHAPE OF HEAD. 


HAIR. 


OTHER PECU- 
LIARITIES. 


Caucasian 


White. 


Round or Oval. 


Soft and of 
various 
colors. 




Mongolian ... 


Yellow. 


Broad. 


Straight and 
Coarse. 


Eyes small and 
slanting. 


Malayan 


Brown. 


Broad. 


Less Straight 

and 

Coarse. 


Lips thick. 


Negro... 


Black. 


Narrow and long 


Crisp and curlj. 


Lips very thick 




Indian 


Red. 


Round. 


Straight 
Coarse 
Black. 





EXERCISE XXVIL 



CHIEF OCCUPATIONS OR INDUSTRIES OF THE PEOPLE. 

T. — When we speak of the occupation or industries of the people 
of a country, we mean what they chiefly do as a means to earn or gain 
their living. When we speak of the- occupation of a single person 
we describe in the name of that person's occupation more particularly 
what he does. For example, my occupation is teaching. George, 
your father's occupation is farming, and Nellie's father, is, by occupa- 
tion a merchant. The occupations or industries of the people of the 
^vorld as a whole, are divided into four great kinds or classes. Let us 
try to learn these well for we shall speak of them often hereafter. 

First. A large number of the people of the Earth are engaged 
in cultivating the ground (or soil) in raising all kinds of crops of grain, 
hay, potatoes, and very many other products of food, for man and 
beast. They also raise large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and 

(40) 



other useful animals. This kind of human labor is called Agricul- 
ture, a word which means the cultivation of the field. We shall 
learn of some countries where most of the people are occupied in 
Agriculture. In our country the greater part of the people are so 
eno-aged. CLe*" the pupils tell whether or not the occupation of their 
fathers is Agriculture.) Now we will write this word on the board: 
Agriculture. (Now refer to Zone map and show the agricultural 
scenes represented near the left side of " North Temperate Zone " 
and in center of " South Temperate Zone.") 

Next to Agriculture, the larger portion of the people of the 
world are engaged in Manufacture. This word means making with 
the hand. If you will think for a moment how many different things 
we use and must have every day, — things which cannot be produced 
by Agriculture, you may get some idea how many people must be 
doing work of this kind. Will you mention some of the things 
which you can now see, which were made by man .'' 

P. — Stove, desk, hats, coats, shoes, books, maps, etc. 

T. — All the peojDle of the world who are occupied in making 
these or other useful articles are engaged in manufacture. I will 
write this word on the blackboard. (Refer to occupation of patrons 
of your school for examples of manufacturers.) We shall also learn 
by and by that a great many useful things are dug uj) from under 
ground. Charles, will you mention some of the useful things which 
you know are dug up out of the Earth? 

C. — Coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, copper, salt, etc. 

T. — Yes; A great many people are at work every day in getting 
these valuable things out of the Earth. Such people are called 
Miners, and their industry or occupation is called Mining'. Let me 
write this word under the others. (Now turn the Study about and 
present before your pupils the Mining- Chart, second Chart of " Phys- 
ical Geography.") Here we have an interesting set of joictures show- 
ing men engaged in different kinds of mining. What a strange work 
this underground work must be. Here (lo) is shown a Coal Mine. 
Not only men and boys, but horses and mules are at work in these 
underground mines, so dark, that, as you see here, men have small 
lamps fastened to their caps, to give them light. Here (i i) is another 
Coal Mine. Here (15) is a Silver Mine. This (7) is a Salt Mine. 
Here (14) is an Iron Mine. A Stone Mine like mis shown here (19) 
is called a Quarry. We shall learn more from this diagram as we 
study the countries of the world. Now let us learn about one more 
kind of industry. A great many people are engaged in buying and 
selling, in moving the agricultural products and the manufactured 

(41) 



articles from the place where they are niade to the place where they 
are sold. For this purpose men use railroads, ships, steamboats, 
horses and o-ther means of carrying goods from place to place. Men 
who "keep store" are called Merchants. Now all people who are 
busy in the way I have just explained to you are engaged in Com- 
merce. (Write on board. Refer to men whom your pupils know, 
whose occupation is commercial. Let them write the four names 
learned in this exercise, and under each head, (if possible) the names 
of several persons following each occupation.) 



EXERCISE XXVIII. 
FORMS OF GOVERNMENTS. 

T. — Now we will soon be ready to go back to the study of the 
countries of Europe. Before we do so, let us learn something about 
how the people of different countries are governed, and by what dif- 
ferent names they call their chief rulers. Frank, can you tell me who 
is the President of the United States? (Frank names him correctly.) 
How came he to be President? 

P. — He was elected by the people. 

T, — Yes; he was elected as our chief ruler, by the people. So our 
law makers are elected by the people. vSuch a country in which the 
rulers and law makers are elected by the people is called a Republic. 
What is its highest officer called ? 

P. — President. 

T. — A Kingdom is a country governed by a King. He is not 
elected by the people. When a King dies, generally his oldest son 
or daughter becomes the next ruler. When a woman rules the king- 
dom, she is called the Queen. One of the countries of Europe, as we 
shall soon learn, is governed by a Queen. The chief ruler of an 
Empire is generally called an Emperor. Sometimes, however, he 
has another name, as Sultan, Shah, Czar or Mikado, as we shall see 
hereafter. An Empire is sometimes made up of several Kingdoms, 
each of which has a King, the Emperor ruling over all. We have 
learned sometime ago that the chief city of a country, where its chief 
ruler lives, is called — . Hattie, will you name it? 

H.— The Capital. 

(Now turn to the Map of Europe.) 

(42) 



T. — How is the Capital of a Country shown on this map? 
P. — By a blue square. 

T. — Now what do these larger blue circles stand for? 
P. — The larger Cities. 

T. — Right. Please remember that the largest City of a State or 
Country is called the Metropolis. 



EXERCISE XXIX. 

(map of EUROPE) 

RUSSIA, NORWAY AND SWEDEN. 

T. — In what part of Europe is Russia? How does it rank in 
size among the countries of Europe? How is it bounded? What is 
the Capital of Russia? 

The people of Russia, called Russians, belong to a branch of the 
Caucasian or white race. (Turn to map of Zones.) Here is a picture 
of a Russian man. The men generally let their hair grow thick and 
long, probably as an additional protection against the cold of the Rus- 
sian climate. The government is an Empire. The chief ruler or 
Emperor is called the Czar. (Turn back to Europe.) The people 
are mostly farmers, fishers and miners. Gold and platinum and iron 
are found in the Ural Mountains. The numerous rivers, lakes and 
seas, supply an abundance of fish. 

T. — In what Zones does Russia lie? 

P. — In the north Temperate and north Frigid Zones. 

T. — In the northern part of this country it is very cold, and in all 
parts the winters are very severe. Notice that Russia has the largest 
river in Europe, the Volga; it is over 2,000 miles long. 

In what part of Europe are Norway and Sweden? How is the 
peninsula of Norway and Sweden bounded? What is the capital of 
Sweden? What is the capital of Norway? The people of Sweden 
are called Swedes; those of Norway, Norwegians. They are Cau- 
casians, like the Russians. The government of each of these coun- 
tries is a Kingdom, but one King rules over both. Iron, lead and 
copper are found in Norway and Sweden. The forests furnish much 
fine timber. In what Zone do Norway and Sweden lie? We might 
therefore suppose that the climate of Norway and Sweden is about 

(43) 



the same as that of Russia. But it is much milder on account of the 
warmer water of the Atlantic Ocean beating against the long western 
coast, as you see. 



EXERCISE XXX. 

(map of EUROPE). 

ENGLAND, SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. 

In what part of Europe is England? How is it bounded? 

In what direction from England is Scotland? 

How is Ireland bounded? 

England and Scotland together are called Great Britain. To- 
gether with Ireland and these many small islands which you see lying 
near by, these countries are called the Bi"itish Islands. London, the 
largest and most wealthy city in the world is the Capital. The four 
great branches of industry are all largely carried on in Great Britain. 
In manufactures and commerce it surpasses every other country, and 
its mines furnish half the coal, iron and tin used in the world, and 
much of the lead, copper and salt. The government is a Kingdom. 
For many years, Victoria has been its ruling queen. England is the 
old home of the English people, who, with their language are found 
scattered through most of the countries of the world. Here, (Wales) 
in the western part of England is a small district called Wales. The 
people are called Welsh, The people of Scotland are called Scots or 
Scotch, and those of Ireland, Irish. They all belong to the great 
Caucasian race. 

In what Zone are these countries ? 

(The following outline, or something similar, is suggested to be 
produced on blackboafd at the close of these exercises. A neat copy- 
ing of these outlines by the pupils into a " Geographical Note Book" 
before recommended, will be a most valuable exercise:) 



(44) 



COUNTRIES. 


capital and 
metropolis 


name and 

RACE OF 
PEOPLE. 


FORM OF 
GOVT. 


ZONE AND 
CLIMATE. 


CHIEF 
INDUSTRIES. 


Russia 


St. Peters- 
burg. 


Russian. 
Caucasian. 


Empire. 


N. Tern. 

N. Frig. 

Cold. 


Farming. 

Fishing. 

Mining. 


Norway 


Christiana. 


Norwegians. 
Caucasian. 


Kingdom 


N. Tern. 

N. Frig. 

Mild. 


Farming. 
Mining. 
Timber trade 


Sweden 


Stockhohn. 


Swedes. 
Caucasian. 


Kingdom 


N. Tem. 

N. Frig. 

Mild. 


Farming. 
Mining. 
Timber trade 


Great Britain 
AND Ireland 


London. < 


English. 

Scotch. 

Welsh. 

Irish. 

Caucasian. 


Kingdom 


N. Tem. 
Mild. 


Agriculture. 
Man'factures 
Mining. 
Commerce. 



EXERCISE XXXL 



(map of EUROPE.) 

FRANCE, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 

In what part of Europe is France? 

How is it bounded? 

What is the Capital? 

The people of France are known as the French. They are also 
(^aucasians. The government is a Republic with a President as chief 
officer. It used to be an Empire, of which the great Napoleon was 
once Emperor. Most of the French people are engaged in agricul- 
ture. (What does that mean?) Manufactures and Commerce arq 
also largely carried on. Mines are scarce in France. Paris, the 
Capital, is the most magnificent and most fashionable city in the 
world. 

(Show your pupils, by referring to the latitude figures on left 
• margin of map, that France lies about the middle of the N. Temp- 
erate Zone, and draw a correct inference in reference to its climate.) 

How is Spain bounded ? 

(45) 



What is the Capital ? 

The people of Spain are called Spanish. Let me show you a 
picture of a Spaniard. (Zone map.) The government is a Kingdom. 
The climate is hot. Nearly all the people are engaged in agriculture. 

In what part of Europe is Portugal? Bound it. 

What is the Capital ? 

In what Zone are Spain and Portugal? 

What natural division of land do these two countries form? 

What are the people of Portugal called? (Portugese.) 



EXERCISE XXXII. 
GERMANY, BELGIUM AND DENMARK. 

(map of EUROPE.) 

How is Germany bounded ? 

What is the capital ? 

Germany is a great Empire made up of four Kingdoms and 
twenty-two other states. It has the strongest army of soldiers and the 
largest and most noted schools in the world. The agricultural pro- 
ducts are very numerous. The mines produce iron, coal, zinc, copper 
and silver. Manufactures and commerce are carried on very exten- 
sively. The German people are much distributed in other countries. 
(Refer to specimen German on Zone map.) 

In what direction from Germany is Belgium ? 

How is Belgium bounded ? 

(The small country north of Belgium is Holland, or the Nether- 
lands.) 

What is the capital of Belgium ? 

Belgium has more people according to its size than any other 
country in Europe. So we say it is the most thickly populated coun- 
try in Europe. The people are called Belgians. They are the best 
farmers in the world. This little country also produces some of the 
finest laces, cloths and carpets. It has also some rich mines of coal, 
iron and zinc. So this little Kingdom is one of the busiest country 
spots on the face of the earth. 

In what direction from Germany is Denmark? 

What is the capital of Denmark ? 

(46) 



What natural division of land does Denmark form? 

The people of Denmark are called Danes. They are engaged 
chiefly in farming and fishing. 

Holland, or the Netherlands, situated north of Belgian, is, itself, 
a very small country. You may be surprised when I tell you that it 
is one of the richest countries of Europe. This is so because some of 
the most important countries situated in other grand divisions belong 
to Holland. In some places Holland is even lower than the ocean, 
w^hose waters must be kept out by great banks of earth or sand called 
dykes or dunes. 



EXERCISE XXXm. 

(map of EUROPE.) 

AUSTRIA, SWITZERLAND AND ITALY. 

How is Austria bounded? 

What is its capital ? 

In what zone does Austria lie? 

What large rivers flow through it? 

Austria is an Empire. Its people, the Austrians, also belong to 
the Caucasian race. Its fields are very productive and its mines yield 
large supplies of silver, iron, coal and salt. I will turn to the chart of 
mines and show you a view of one of these Austrian salt mines. (Refer 
to 6.) This shows a wonderful salt mine. It is much like a city under 
ground. This (7) shows a gallery or hallway into one of these mines. 

By what mountains is Switzerland nearly surrounded ? 

What is the capital? 

Switzerland is a republic. Its people, the Swiss, are largely 
engaged in dair}'- farming — that is, in making butter and cheese. 

In what part of Europe is Italy? 

How is it bounded ? 

What is its capital? 

The climate of Italy is very delightful. It has many beautiful 
vineyards. Rome is the most celebrated city in the world. It con- 
tains many beautiful churches, ancient buildings and wonderful ruins. 
It is the residence of the Pope, who is the head of the Roman Cath- 
olic Church. 

(47) 



EXERCISE XXXIV. 
TURKEY, GREECE, AND SMALLER STATES. 

(map of EUROPE.) 

How is Turkey bounded ? What is the capital ? 

Turkey is an Empire. The emperor is called the Sultan. 

Bound Greece. What is its capital ? 

Greece was once the most celebrated and learned country in the 
world. 

How is Bulgaria bounded? Bound Servia; Roumania. 

Bulgaria, Roumania and Servia formerly belonged to Turkey, but 
they are now new and independent states or countries. 

Now before we leave the map of Europe let me ask you a few 
more special questions. 

Which is the largest country of Europe ? 

Which country of Europe has the largest city? 

Which has the most beautiful city? 

Which has the strongest army? 

Which has the longest river? 

Which has the thickest population? 

Which has the most noted schools? 

Which has the coldest climate? 

Which has the largest inanuf actures ? 

Which has the most noted city? 



EXERCISE XXXV. 

(map of ASIA.) 

COUNTRIES OF ASIA. 

T. — To-day we have a new map before us. What grand division 
does it represent? 

P.— Asia. • 

T. — Notice also that besides showing the whole of Asia, it shows 
part of Europe, (show where) a small part of Africa, and a part of 
Australia. 

(48) 



In what direction is Asia from Europe? From Africa? From 
Australia? Bound Asia. 

What Strait separates Asia from Africa? (Bab-el-Mendab.^ 

What is the most northern country of Africa? 

What large country south of Siberia? 

What is the most westerly country of Asia? 

What country south of Turkey ? (Turkey in Asia.) 

What country southeast of Turkey? 

What two countries east of Persia? 

What small country north of Afghanistan ? 

What large country forms the southern part of Asia? (India.) 

What island country east of the Chinese Empire? (Japan.) 

In what part of Asia is Arabia? Japan? India? Persia? Turkey? 

(Remove map and apply memory test.) 



EXERCISE XXXVI. 

(map of ASIA.) 

ISLANDS AND PENINSULAS. 

T. — Near the coast of Asia are many important islands. Mary, 
will you point out and name some of them, as I write them on the 
blackboard? Describe the Japan Islands? 

The Japan Islands are east of Asia, and are surrounded by the 
Okhotsk Sea, the JajDan Sea, the Blue Sea and the Pacific Ocean. 

Describe the Island of Sumatra, Borneo, Java, The Philippine 
Islands, Celebes, Ceylon, Hainan. 

What is a Peninsula? 

William, please describe the Peninsula of Kamtchatka. 

W. — Kamtchatka projects from the northeastern part of Asia 
and is nearly surrounded by Behring Sea, Okhotsk Sea and the Pa- 
cific Ocean. 

Describe the Peninsula of Corea, Malay Peninsula, Hindoostan, 

T. — George, do you observe any other large Peninsula on the 
map of Asia? 

G. — Yes; there is one which reminds me very much of the Pen- 
insula of Spain and Portugal in Europe. I mean the peninsula 
formed by Arabia and a part of Turkey. 

4 (49) 



T. — You are quite right. Will you describe that Peninsula? 

G. — The peninsula of Arabia and Turkey projects from the 
southwestern part of Asia, and is nearly surrounded by the Red Sea, 
the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf. 



EXERCISE XXXVII. 

(map of ASIA.) 

MOUNTAINS AND CAPES. 

(Recall the definition of a Mountain and the manner of its des- 
scription.) 

T. — Here we meet the Ural Mountains again. Harry, can you 
tell me why? 

H. — Because they form a part of the boundary line between 
Asia and Europe. 

T. — There are many mountain chains in Asia. Some of their 
names are very difficult to learn and remember. We shall not try to 
learn them at present. But let us first take a general view of the 
mountains in the countries of Asia. Lora, what does the map ohow 
us about mountains in Siberia? 

L. — Siberia has many mountains, especially in the eastern part 
and along the southern boundary. 

T. — That is very well stated. But while the eastern part of Si- 
beria is very mountainous and a long mountain wall seems to divide 
Siberia from China, the northern and western part of Siberia is quite 
a low and level country or plain. Do the mountains of Siberia seem 
to run in any one particular direction? 

P. — No; they run in many directions. 

T. — Is China a very mountainous country? 

P. — Yes; it has many mountains. 

T. — Are they found in all the different parts of China? 

P. — Nearly so. 

T. — Yes; but here in the northern part we notice quite a j^ortion 
of the country where there are no mountains. What is this name 
given to this part of China (Point it out.) 

P. — Desert of Gobi. 

(50) 



T. — How many of you remember what a desert is? (Hands up.) 
Frank, will you describe a desert? 

F. — A desert is a great barren plain, without trees or gi-ass. 

T. — Yes. Now I will try to explain to 3^011 why this is a desert 
region. Where no rain falls, the country becomes a desert, for with- 
out rain, trees and grass cannot grow. Now 30U notice this desert 
region is nearly surrounded by mountains. When the air wnich car- 
ries the moisture that produces rain is carried over a mountain, the 
cold near the mountain top makes the moisture fall as rain before it 
' gets over the top, and so no rain gets to the other side. So while rain 
falls on those sides of the mountains which are turned away from this 
region, none falls on the other sides. For this reason this is a desert, 
and this, by the way, is the explanation of the cause of nearly all the 
deserts of the world. Let us notice, also, that not only the cotmtries 
of Asia are quite mountainous, but even the islands of Asia, as for 
instance, Borneo and Sumatra, are very mountainous. 

Now I have not asked you to learn or remember the names of 
the mountain chains of Asia. But here, between China and India is 
a range of mountains whose name you will want to remember, for 
they are the highest mountains in the world. They are called the 
Himalaya Mountains. This chain has many high single peaks, or 
mounts. Here (locate) is the highest mountain peak in the world. 
It is Mount Everest — 29,000 ft. or over five miles high. (Conclude 
this lesson by asking one of your pupils to step to the map, and point 
out and name some of the Capes of Asia. It is not necessary at this 
stage, to memorize their names.) 



EXERCISE XXXVIIL 

(map of ASIA.) 

SEAS, GULFS AND BAYS. 

T. — Now let VIS have an exercise on the larger divisions of water, 
on the map of Asia. Let us remember that Seas, Gulfs and Bays are 
generally branches of the ocean extending into the land. 

On how many sides is Asia bounded by oceans? 

What ocean north of Asia? 

(31) 



What is the largest branch of this ocean extending into Asia? 
(Gulf of Obi.) 

Into what country of Asia does it extend. 

What ocean east of Asia? 

The eastern coast of Asia is bordered entirely, as you see, by a 
chain of seas. Let us learn these seas, beginning at the north. 

What two seas are east of Siberia? 

What sea between Japan and the main-land? 

What two seas east of China? 

What sea southeast of China? 

How many large seas east of Asia? 

Now on the southern coast of Asia we find first, what gulf? (Gulf 
of Slam.) 

Then what bay ? 

Next what sea? 

Then one more gulf; what is it? 

Of what ocean are the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea and the 
Gulf of Aden branches? 

Asia is bounded on the west by one grand division and four seas. 

What grand division west of Europe? 

What four seas? 

Now these large divisions of water lying all around Asia are quite 
important. It will help us to remember them if we make an outline 
of our lesson on the blackboard. 



BORDER SEAS, GULFS 'AND BAYS OF ASIA. 



NAME? 


DIRECTION 
FROM ASIA? 


WHERE? 


Gulf of Obi 


North 


North of Siberia. 


Behring Sea 


East. 


East of Siberia. 


Okhotsk Sea 


East. 


East of Siberia. 


Japan Sea 


East. 


Between China and Japan. 
East of China. 


Yellow Sea 


East 


Blue Sea 


East. 


East of China. 


China Sea _ 


East. 


South-East of China. 


Gulf of Siam 


South 


South of Siam. 


Bay of Bengal 


South 


South of India. 


Arabian Sea 


South . 


Between India and Arabia. 


Gulf of Aden 


South . 


South of Arabia. 


Red Sea 


West 


West of Turkey. 


Mediterranean Sea. 


West 


West of Turkey. 


Black Sea 


West . ... 


North of Turkey. 
North of Persia. 


Caspian Sea 


West 









(52) 



EXERCISE XXXIX. 

(map of ASIA.) 

STRAITS, LAKES AND RIVERS. 

T. — There are many straits or narrow bodies of water on this 
map of Asia, as for instance, here between this island of Sumatra and 
the Malay Peninsula, is Malacca Strait. Here between Sumatra and 
Java is Sunda Strait. Between Borneo and Celebes is Macassar 
Strait. But I will ask you now to remember only the names and 
places of two of the straits on the map. 

Here in the northeast corner of the map is shown Behring Strait. 
This strait is important because it separates the two grand divisions of 
Asia and North America. Let me show you this more clearly on the 
map of North America. (Turn to that map and illustrate the point.) 

Now you notice that Asia in the southwest part is separated from 
Africa by this (point out) narrow strip of water. This is the strait of 
Bab-el-Mandeb. George, write the names of these two straits on the 
blackboard. 

But Asia is not altogether cut off from Africa by natural divisions 
of water. Here, between the Red sea and the Mediterranean Sea is a 
narrow strip of land which joins them together. What is a narrow 
neck of land which joins two larger portions of land called? This is 
the Isthmus of Suez. (Show it on the map of Africa.) But men 
have dug a canal through this isthmus, so that ships can pass from one 
sea to the other. This is called the Suez Canal. 

T. — Mattie, do there seem to be many lakes in Asia? 

M. — I see a number of lakes shown on the map, but most of them 
seem to be quite small. 

T. — That is correct. All the lakes of Asia are rather small, ex- 
cept two in Siberia. (Point out, and name lakes Baikal and Balkash.) 

What three large rivers in Siberia? 

In what direction do they flow? (The Yeneseiis the largest river 
in Asia.) 

Into what do they empty ? 

What two large rivers in China? 

In what direction do they flow? 

Into what do they empty? 

What three large rivers in Hindoostan? 

Into what do they empty ? 

Where is the Euphrates river? 

(53) 



In what direction does it flow? 

Into what does it flow? 

(Make outHne of straits under heads. Name? Where? Connect 
what? Outline rivers under heads. Name? Where? Direction? 
Empties into? 



EXERCISE XL. 

(map of ASIA.) 

SIBERIA, CHINA AND JAPAN. 

How IS Siberia bounded? 

Siberia belongs to the Russian Empire. 

It is the coldest country in the world. In the northern part 
north of these mountains (point out) there are few people. They 
wander about from place to place, and live on the fish which they 
catch in the large rivers. South of these mountains and in the west- 
ern part, there are large grass regions, on which the people raise large 
numbers of sheep and horses. Among these mountains are vast ever- 
green forests having many fur-bearing, and other wild animals. 
Many of the furs which the ladies of our country wear, come from 
here. (Trace the Arctic Circle through Siberia.) 

In what Zone is that part of Siberia which lies north of the 
Arctic Circle? 

That part which lies south of the Arctic Circle? 

How is the Chinese Empire bounded? 

What is the Capital? (Pekin.) 

This great Empire is very thickly peopled. You will perhaps 
be surprised to learn that nearly one-third of all the population of the 
world live in it. The people are called Chinese, or Chinamen. How 
many of you have seen a Chinaman? The Chinese belong to the 
Mongolian or yellow race. To what race do the people of the coun- 
tries which we have before studied belong? Let me turn to the map 
of Zones to show you a specimen Chinese Mongolian, They are so 
much crowded together in China that many people live in boats on the 
rivers and canals. Some, even have their gardens on boats. They 
raise much rice, silk and tea. Here (right hand side of picture of 
Temperate Zone) is a picture of Chinese life. 

(54) 



Of what is the Empire of Tapan composed? (Of a number of 
islands.) 

What is the Capital ? (Tokio.) 

The chief ruler or emperor is called the Mikado. The people of 
Japan, or the Japanese, are Mongolians. They are much like the 
Chinese in appearance, but they have a separate language. (Turn to 
the Zone map and show Japanese.) They also raise much rice 
and tea. How many of you have seen a Japanese? 



EXERCISE XLI. 

(map of ASIA.) 

INDIA, PERSIA AND ARABIA. 

T. — This group of countries forming the southern part of Asia 
is called India. The greater, western part, (colored on map) is gen- 
erally called British India. It belongs to Great Britain. Calcutta is 
the capital. East India includes, as you see, a number of countries. 
It is also called Farther India, or Indo-China, 

The people of India are called Hindoos. They belong to the 
Caucasian or w^hite race. They raise rice, coffee, indigo and spices, 
and make very beautiful shawls and carpets. 

What circle passes through India? 

In what Zone does India lie? 

What may we then suppose in regard to the climate? (Contrast 
with Siberia.) 

How is Persia bounded ? 

What is the Capital of Persia? 

The Persians make beautiful shawls, carpets and embroidered 
articles. They are a very jDolite people. 

How is Arabia bounded? 

Much of Arabia is desert country. The best coffee and the finest 
horses in the world are raised in Arabia. Camels are used for both 
the purposes of the American horse and wagon. 

Of the few remaining countries of Asia, of which we have not 
spoken, you will learn more hereafter. 

Which is the largest country in Asia? 

Which is the most thickly peopled? (China.) 

(55) 



Which has the warmest climate? 

Which is composed entirely of islands? 

Which has the largest river ? 

Which is noted for good coffee and fine horses? 

Which two for fine shawls and carpets? 

Which has the largest lakes? 

Which country approaches nearest to Africa? 

Which approaches nearest to North America? 



EXERCISE XLII. 

(map of AFRICA.) 

AFRICA. 

T. — In which Hemisphere does Africa lie? 
To which Continent does it belong? 
How is Africa bounded? 
What Strait separates it from Europe? 
What Isthmus connects it with Asia? 
What large Island east of Africa? (Madagascar.) 
What Mountains in the northern part of Africa? (Atlas 
Mountains.) 

In the western part? (Kong Mountains.) 

In the eastern part? (Mountains of the Moon.) 

In the southern part? (Snow Mountains.) 

What Sea north of Africa? 

What Sea east of Africa? 

What Gulf east of Africa? 

West of Africa? 

What large River in the northeastern part of Africa? 

Into what does the Nile River empty? 

What River in the western part of Africa. (Niger.) 

Into what does the Niger River empty? 

What River in southwestern Africa? (Congo.) 

Into what does the Congo River empty? 

What River in southern Africa ? (Orange.) 

Into what does it empty ? 

(56) 



(Call attention to Lake Tchad near the center of Africa. Also 
show your pupils that the lakes of Africa are mostly grouped near 
together in the south-eastern part. Point them out and name them, 
but do not, at this stage of their work, expect the pupils to learn their 
names. 



NAME? 


WHERE? 


niRECTION ? 


Atlas Mountains 

Kong Mountains 

Snow Mountains 

Moon Mountains 


Northern Africa 

Western Africa. 


North-east & Soutli-west. 
East & West. 


Southern Africa 

Eastern Africa ; 


North-east & South-west, 
North & South. 








Nile River.. 


North-eastern Africa 

Western Africa 

South-western Africa 

Southern Africa 


North. 


Nisrer River 


North-east & South. 


Congo River 


West & South-west. 


Orange River 


West. 







EXERCISE XLIII. 



(map of AFRICA.) 



AFRICA. 



T, — In the beginning of our exercise to-day let us notice four of 
the Capes of Africa. They are sometimes called the Cape-ends of 
this grand division, because they are the farthest points of land out 
on the four sides. Here in the north is Cape Bon. Fannie, please 
write these four names on the board as we learn them. Here is Cape 
Verde, forming the most westerly point of Africa. Cape Agulhas is 
the most southern point, and Cape Guardafui the most eastern. 

What great circle passes nearly through the center of Africa? 

What circle passes through northern Africa? 

In how many Zones does Africa lie? 

In which Zone does most of it lie ? 

What must be the general character of its climate? 

We will now learn something about the most important countries 
of Africa. The most important country of Africa is Egypt. 



In what part is it. 

What large River flows through Egypt? 

The Nile is the largest river in Africa. But for this river Egypt 
would be a desert. Half of the year its water overflows its banks 
and covers a large part of the country. During the other half of the 
year it is but a small narrow stream. Then the finest crops are raised 
in the valley, which its water had overflowed. Cairo, the capital of 
Egypt, is the largest city of Africa. The people of Egypt mostly 
belong to the Caucasian race. 

What is the name of this large country west of Egypt? (Sahara.) 

What other name does it have ? (Great Desert.) 

Yes. This is the largest desert in the world. Rain is almost 
unknown here, except in a few spots which are shown here. (Refer 
to Fezzan, Tibesti, etc.) These, as we have learned before, are called 
Oases. The reason why this is a desert region is that the wind or air 
which blows over it coming over the high mountains of south-eastern 
Asia has lost its moisture, and brings no rain to Sahara. We will not 
try to learn the names of any more of these countries now. You will 
learn more about them when you have advanced farther in Geog- 
raphy. But we will learn something more about the people of this 
grand division. Two of the five great races have their home in 
Africa. By the way, can you give me the names of the five races 
of men as we learned them from the Zone map sometime ago? 

P. — Caucasian, Mongolian, Malayan, Negro and Indian. 

T. — Will you give me the general color or complexion of these 
races in the same order? 

p._White, Yellow, Brown, Black, Red. 

T. — What race lives in Egypt? 

P. — The Caucasian. 

T. — Yes. The Caucasians live in the northern part of Africa. 
In the other parts of this grand division the Negro race has its home. 
There are many varieties of Negroes in this country. Let us turn to 
the Zone map, where, as you remember, several specimens are shown. 
(Refer to right hand figure, lower left hand corner of Zone map.) 
This represents one of the more common variety of African negroes. 
This is a Bushman and this is a Hottentot. These negroes live 
in the southern part of Africa. 



(58) 



EXERCISE XLIV. 

(map of eastern hemisphere.) 

AUSTRALIA. 

T. — Let us have a short exercise to-day on AustraHa. 
In what Hemisphere is the Australian Continent ? 
In what part of the eastern Continent is Austrah'a? 
In what direction is AustraHa from Africa? From Asia? 
What large islands are between Australia and Asia? 
What ocean north and east of Australia? 
What ocean west of Australia ? 

Which of the Tropical Circles passes through Australia ? 
In what Zones does Australia lie? 
Australia is inhabited mostly by people who have gone there 
from Europe. The rest of the people are Malayans. 

Let us turn again to the map of Zones and learn some more about 
the people of Australia. (Over.) Here in the middle part of this 
view of the South Temperate Zone we have a scene of life and in- 
dustry of Australia. (Point to flock of sheep.) What does this 
scene suggest to you ? 

P. — They seem to raise many sheep and cattle in Australia. 
T. — You are right. Australia is the greatest sheep and wool 
raising country in the world. (Point to harvest scene.) What does 
this show ? 

P. — That they raise grain there. 

T. — Yes. Agricultural industry, or as we would commonly say, 
farming, is growing quite important in that country. Here is a pic- 
ture of another important scene in Australian life. These people are 
washing gold out of the sand and gravel taken from the bottom of 
the Australian rivers. A large part of the gold of the world comes 
from Australia. 



EXERCISE XLV. 

(map of south AMERICA.) 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

T. — We have now learned about the Continents, Grand Divis- 
ions and Countries of the Eastern Hemisphere. We will now study 

(59) 



the two grand divisions of the Western Hemisphere. What are 
they ? 

P. — North America and South America. 
T. — What map is this bef oi-e us ? 
P. — The map of South America. 

T. — In what direction is South America from North America? 
(To fix this point well in the minds of your pupils, turn to map of 
Western Hemisphere.) 

T. — How is South America joined to North America? (By the 
Isthmus of Panama.) 

How is South America bounded? 

What is by far the largest country in South America? 
What is the most north-westerly country of South America? 
What country is east of the United States of Columbia? 
What country east of Venezuela? (Guiana.) 
What country south of the United States of Columbia? 
South of Ecuador? South-east of Peru? South of Peru? East of 
Chili? North-east of the Argentine Republic? 
What small country soiith of Brazil? 

Into how many countries is South America divided ? (Eleven.) 
As I call for them spell their names while I write them on the 
blackboard. (Make list, then remove the map.) 

Now let me see what you remember about these countries. 
Which is the largest? 
Which is the smallest? 
Which is the farthest east? 
Fai-thest north-east? 

In what part is Venezuela? Guiana? Ecuador? Peru? Bol- 
ivia? Chili? Argentine Republic? Paraguay? Uruguay? 



EXERCISE XLVI. 

(map of south AMERICA.) 

SOUTH AMERICA-(CONTINUED.) 

T. — What do you observe about the islands of South America? 
(Draw out the fact that they are generally small, and quite near to 

(60) 



the mainlancl. Call attention to the island of Terra-del-Fuego, which 
means Land of Fire.) 

What do you notice about the mountains of South America? 
(Lead them to notice the great Andes chain extending through South 
America from north to south.) 

These are the Andes Mountains, one of the longest chains in 
the world. 

Through and between what countries do they extend? 

What other part of South America is very mountainous? (The 
eastern part.) 

We will now learn the five largest rivers of South America. 
Here is the longest — the Amazon. Where is it? 

In what direction does it flow? 

Into what ocean does it empty? 

Here is the second in length — the Parana River. 

Where does it flow ? Direction ? Where does it empty ? 

Next is the San Francisco. Describe it. 

Then comes the Orinoco. Describe it. 

The fifth in lensfth is the Magfdalena. Describe it. 



>rAME.' 


WHERE.? 


DIRECTION.? 


EMPTIES INTO.? 


Amazon 

Parana. \ 

San Francisco 


Brazil. 

Brazil and Argen- 
tine Republic 

Brazil 


East 

South 

North-east 

East 


Atlantic Ocean 
Atlantic Ocean 
Atlantic Ocean 


Orinoco 


Venezuela. 

Columbia 


Atlantic Ocean 


Magdalena 


North 


Caribbean Sea 







EXERCISE XL VII. 

(map of SOUTH AMERICA.) 

SOUTH AMERICA-(CONTINUED.) 



What great circle crosses the northern part of South America? 
Which countries of South America are in north latitude? 
Which two are partly in north latitude but mostly in south lati- 
tude? 

(61) 



" In which zone is the greater part of South America? 

In what zone does Brazil lie? 

In what zone is Peru? Paraguay? Bolivia? Uruguay? Argentine 
Republic? 

How is Brazil bounded? What is the capital? 

Brazil is an Empire. It is the home of three races of people; 
whites, Indians and Negroes. The Brazilian Indians are among the 
strangest looking people in the world. The zone map shows us two 
specimens. (Turn to them.) 

Most of the coffee, india-rubber and diamonds used in the world 
come from Brazil. See the map shows several of these districts of 
Brazil where diamonds are found. Rio Janeiro, the capital, is the 
largest city in South America. 

Into what three parts is the country of Guiana divided? 

The names show to what country these parts belong. They 
produce much sugar, coffee and indigo. These are also the chief 
products of Venezuela. 

Many of these countries of South America produce a valuable 
bark, called Peruvian bark, from which quinine^ a very important 
medicine, is made. The great plain regions of South America have 
different names in different parts. Here in the north, you see, they 
are called Llanos. Here in Brazil they are called Selvas. Down 
here in the Argentine Republic they are called Pampas. On the rich 
grass which grows on these plains large herds of cattle are raised, and 
there are also wild cattle found here. Hides, horns and tallow are 
shipped in large quantities from here to other parts of the world. Let 
me show you a cattle-catching scene, and an Indian scene of South 
America, on the zone map. (Left side of South Temperate Zone 
Chart.) 



EXERCISE XLVIII. 

(map of north AMERICA.) 

NORTH AMERICA, 

T. — What map is this befor^e us? 

P. — The map of North America. 

T. — This represents the grand division of which our own country 
is a part. I am sure you will be much interested in the study of this 
map. 

(62) 



In which Hemisphere is North America? 

To which Continent does it belong? 

How is Nortli America bounded ? 

In what direction is North America from South America? 

(Show your pupils where the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of 
Cancer cross North America, by tracing them carefully across the map.) 

In what zone is the greater part of North America ? 

In what zone is the northern part? 

In what zone is the southern part ? 

What connects North America and South America? 

What country forms the northern part of North America? (Do- 
minion of Canada.) 

What country occupies the central part of North America? 

What country south of the United States? 

What country south-east of Mexico? 

What islands south-east of the United States? 

What large island north-east of North America? 

What peninsula forms the north-western part of North America? 
(Alaska.) 

What separates North America from Asia? 

What large bay in the Dominion of Canada? 

What strait connects it with the Atlantic Ocean? 

What strait and what bay between Canada a ncf Greenland? 

What peninsula south-west of the United States? 

What large island is east of Canada? 

What gulf between New Foundland and Canada? 

What Island east of Greenland? 



EXERCISE XLIX. 

f (map of north AMERICA.) 

NORTH AMERICA. 

What ocean east of the Dominion of Canada? West? North? 
What mountains extend through the whole of the western part of 
North America? 

What large river in the north-western part of Canada? 
In what direction does it flow? 

(63) 



Into what ocean does it empty ? 

(Call attention to the large number of Canadian lakes connected 
by the Mackenzie River with the Arctic Ocean.) 

What large river in the eastern part of North America between 
Canada and the United States? 

What large lakes does it connect with the Atlantic Ocean ? 

The Dominion of Canada belongs to Great Britain. In the east- 
ern Provinces or States of Quebec and Ontario it is quite thickly set- 
tled with wide-awake and intelligent people. Toronto, Ottawa, Mon- 
treal and Quebec, are very important Canadian cities. In the western 
part the people are mostly Indians. (Refer to zone map and show 
Indian specimens, and remind your pupils that we have now met 
in our study, in dififerent parts of the world, all of the five races of 
men.) 

Greenland and Iceland are cold barren islands. They belong to 
Denmark. 

For several hundred years most of the world's silver came from 
Mexico. 

From the states of Central America come many of our oranges, 
bananas, cocoa-nuts, coffee, india-rubber and m^ihogany wood. 



EXERCISE L. 

(map of north AMERICA.) 

UNITED STATES. 

T. — We have now learned considerable aoout the geography and 
people of the world in general. We shall now more particularly 
study our own countiy. 

T. — What is the name of our country ? 

P.— The United States. 

T. — It will be much easier for you to understand now in what 
part of the earth we live, than it would have been in the beginning of 
our study. 

In which Hemisphere do we live ? 

To which continent do the United States belong? 

Of what grand division are they a part? 

(64) 



They are called the United States because they are one nation, 
bqing united together under one government. 

How are the United States bounded? 

How many and what countries border on the United States? 
(Two. Canada and Mexico.) 

How many and what large bodies of water border on the U. S. ? 
(Two oceans and two gulfs.) 

In what zone are the United States? 

Are they in North or South Latitude? 

T. — Harry, what do you understand by that answer? 

H. — Latitude means distance either north or south of the equator, 
and since the United States are north of the equator, they are in north 
latitude. 

T. — Correct. (Now explain to your pupils that the peninsula of 
Alaska belongs to the United States, but being situated at some dis- 
tance from the main country it will not be considered as included 
when speaking of the boundaries, latitude and longitude of the 
country.) 

In what latitude does the map show the, most southern part of the 
United States to be? (25 degrees.) 

Then how near to the equator do the United States lie? (Within 
25 degrees.) 

In what latitude is the northern boundary of the United States? 
(About 49 degrees. Show this by reference to latitude figures on 
margin of map.) 

How far from the Tropic of Cancer are the United States? (One 
and one-half degrees, that is, 25 degrees less twenty-three and one- 
half degrees, the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer.) 

Then how near to the Torrid Zone do the United States lie? 
(Within one and one-half degrees.) 

Are the United States in east or west longitude? 

In what longitude west is the most eastern part of the United 
States? (About 67 degrees west of Greenwich.) 

In what longitude is the western coast? (About 125 degrees 
west of Greenwich.) 

The United States measure about 2,500 miles — one-tenth around 
the world — from east to west, and about 1,600 miles from north to 
south. (This lesson on the location and extent of our country is very 
important. Drill on it till your pupils have fully mastered it.) 



(65) 



EXERCISE LI. 

(map of north AMERICA.) 

THE UNITED STATES. 

(Bring before your pujDils the Relief Map of the United States.) 

T, — For our exercise to-day we shall use this curious looking 
map. You remember we learned something from this before, when 
I promised to teach you more about it later. What country does this 
map represent? 

P.— The United States. 

T. — Yes. This is called a Relief Map of the United States. 
Such a map is intended to show the unevenness of the country; that 
is, where it is higher or lower than at other places, where its highest 
places and its lowest places are. When we speak of the height or 
elevation of any part of the country, we mean how much higher it is 
than the level of the ocean. You know we say the surface of water 
when at rest, is level or even. So the surface of the sea or ocean is 
considered to be the level from which the degree of unevenness of 
the land is reckoned. What is higher than the level of the ocean is 
called an elevatioTz. What is lower is called a depression. So if a 
mountain is said to be 10,000 ft. high it means that its top is so many 
feet higher than the ocean's surface. Or, if I should tell you that the 
elevation or height of this land on which our school-house stands is 
500 ft. it w^ould mean that in going from here to the sea-shore, no 
matter how many higher places we should need to climb over, we 
should go down lower than we now are 500 feet. (Use some conven- 
ient object having a general surface with elevations and depressions 
to make this idea perfectly clear to your pupils.) 

Now on this map these flat blue surfaces represent bodies of 
water. (Pointing to the right hand side.) What does this represent? 

P. — The Atlantic Ocean. 

T.— And this ? 

P.— The Gulf of Mexico. 

T.— And this, west of the country ? 

P.— The Pacific Ocean. 

T. — So this also repi'esents the level of the ocean. Therefore, a 
glance at this map shows us where our country is high or low. Now 
I wish you to observe the map carefully and tell me what you notice 
about the heights of the different parts of the United States. (Ob- 
servations like the following will be stated.) 

(66) 



Frank. — The western part is the hi^^hest part of all. 

Ellen. — The eastern and north-eastern parts are also quite high. 

George. — The middle part is quite low and even. 

Hattie. — The western coast is high but the eastern shore is lo^v. 

Harry. — It is also low along the Gulf of Mexico. 
. T. — What do these white lines on the map represent or show? 

P. — Rivers and other streams of water. 

T. — What do you observe about the location of these streams? 

P. — They seem to be most numerous and largest in the lower 
parts of the country. 

T. — You are right. The lower the country the larger and more 
numerous the streams. Can any one tell me why this should be so? 

Ralph. — I think it is because the water always runs down to the 
lower places. 

T. — Very good. That is the reason that streams Jlovj. The 
s seeking a lower place. But what is the lowest place it can 



water 
reach ? 

P 

T 

what? 
p 

T 
the Ocean. 



— The level of the ocean. 

— Therefore the water of all these streams finally flows into 

— Into the ocean. 

— Yes; or into some Sea, Gulf or Bay, which is a branch of 



EXERCISE LII. 



(relief map of the uxited states.) 

T. — Now it will be convenient for us to study this map of the 
United States in three parts or divi^-ions. This we will call the east- 
ern part; this the western p:irt; and between these lies this large low 
and even part of the country which we will call the middle part, or, 
as we shall speak of it 1 iter, the Mississippi Valley. Let us now 
carefully study the middle part first. What would you say of the 
height of this middle part of the United States? 

P. — It is the lowest portion of the whole country. 

T. — This lirge river flowing from north to south nearly through 
this whole region, and into which so many other streams empty is 
called the Mississippi River. Tliis is the longest river in the world. 
Let us learn to spell its name correctly. (Write it on blackboard.) 

(67) 



The source of this great river, that is, the place where It starts, is up 
here in Lake Itasca, near the northern boundary of the United States. 
What a slender little stream it is in the first part of its course. But it 
is no wonder that it soon grows so much larger. See from what a 
great distance it gathers its waters. (Point out carefully.) From way 
up here on these mountains the streams gather and form this large 
Missouri river, (trace it) which empties, as you see, into the Mississippi 
at this point, about midway between the northern boundary and the 
Gulf of Mexico. A little farther on in its course, the Mississippi River 
receives the water of the Ohio River, (trace it) gathered from the 
eastern jjart of this great valley. Here the Arkansas River brings in 
from the west, the water of numerous tributaries, as you see. Final- 
ly, the Red River empties its water into the great Mississippi not far 
from where this river empties itself into the Gulf of Mexico. 

Now you can easily understand why this great middle region of 
the United States is called the Mississippi Valley. We shall learn 
hereafter that this is one of the most productive sections of country 
found in the world. 

Now let us learn more particularly the course of the rivers in the 
Mississippi Valley. What is the general course of these rivers in the 
northern and western part of the Mississippi Valley? 

P. — They flow generally eastward either directly into the Missis- 
sippi or into some large branch of the Mississippi River. 

T. — Of course, we must remember, that most of these tributary 
streams are made up of numerous other smaller creeks and brooks 
not shown on the map. By the way, let us notice that this river, up 
in the north, rising in this lake, called Devil's Lake, flows on for some 
distance in this south-east direction (trace it) as if it were going 
towards the Mississippi. But here it turns and actually flows north 
leaving the United States and flowing into Canada. This is called 
the Red River of the North. What must be the reason for this river 
taking such a strange turn here ? 

P. — It must be that the surface of the country does not slope 
towards the Mississippi there, but in the opposite direction. 

T. — That is true. So what can we learn from the course of these 
rivers ? 

P. — We learn that the country slopes in the direction in which 
the rivers flow. 

T. — What do you notice about the rivers In tt|e Mississippi Val- 
ley east of the great river? 

P. — They flow either directly into the MississiiDpI or into some 
large tributary of that river. 

(68) 



T. — Do any rivers flow into these great lakes? 

P. — The map shows that a few rivers flow into the great lakes. 

T. — What about the rivers in the southern part of the Mississippi 
Valley? 

P. — They flow southward into the Gulf of Mexico. 

T. — What do we learn from these rivers in regard to the surface 
of the country thi^ough which they flow? 

P. — It slopes towards the Gulf of Mexico. 

T. — Now while this great Mississippi Valley is shown to us by 
this map, to be generally low and level, we must remember that it is 
not pC7-J'ectly so. It is in some places considerably higher than in 
other places. Does the map show it to be so? 

P. — It shows the country near the central part of the Mississij^pi 
Valley to be higher. 

T. — So it is. At some places the country is hilly and there are 
even some mountain groups found here and there. (Illustrate the 
elevated part near the center, by turning to the map of North Amer- 
ica and showing the mountains there represented in Missouri, Arkan- 
sas, and also in western Texas.) 



EXERCISE LIIL 

(relief map of the united states.) 

T. — Let us now study the surface of the eastern division of the 
United States. What does the map show us about it? 

P. — It is mostly high and mountainous. 

T. — These mountains, taken together, are called the Appalachian 
Mountain system. In what general dii^ection does this whole system 
extend? 

P. — North-east and south-west. 

T. — The Appalachian Mountain system is made up of a number 
of mountain chains and mountain peaks. Up here, (in New Hamp- 
shire) are the White Mountains. This highest peak of the White 
Mountains is Mount Washington. It is over 6,000 feet high, and is 
one of the highest points in the eastern division of the United States. 
This next chain shown here (in Vermont) represents the Green 
Mountains. These (in New York) are the Adirondack Mountains, 
over 5,000 ft. higher than the sea. Next farther south are -the Cat- 

(69) 



skill Mountains; farther on towards the south-west, as you see, this 
great mountain system is made up of several great chains all I'unning 
in the same general direction. The most eastern chain is the Blue 
Ridge Mountains. Then next west of these are the Alleghany Moun- 
ains. Then farthest west are the Cumberland Mountains. We shall 
meet these mountains again when we study the States. So you need 
not try to remember all their names now. But let us leai^n and re- 
member the highest points- in this eastern part of our counti'y. Robert, 
will you step to the map and point to what seems to be the highest 
part of this mountain system? (If this is correctly done, the Blue 
Ridge ISIountains in North Carolina will be referred to.) 

T. — That is the highest portion of land in the eastern division of 
the United States. The highest mountain peak of this high place is 
called the Black Dome. It is 6,700 ft. high; its top over a mile and 
a quarter above the level of the sea. How do the streams on the 
west side of this mountain system flow? 

P. — Westward into the Mississippi Valley. 

T. — Into what large body of water do they find their way? 

P.— Into the Gulf of Mexico. 

T. — Through what great river? 

P. — The Mississippi River. 

T. — Here (in New York) is a river which seems to flow right 
through the mountains. It is the Mohawk River. What is such a 
low section between mountains called? 

P.— A Valley. 

T. — Right, and since the Mohawk River flows through this val- 
ley it is called the Mohawk Valley. How do the streams on the east 
side of this mountain system flow? 

P. — From the mountains eastward to the sea. 

T. — What do you observe about the height of the country be- 
tween these mountains and the ocean ? 

P. — It is quite low. 

T. — And what does the course of the rivers show? 

P. — That it slopes towards the Atlantic Ocean. 



(70) 



EXERCISE LIV. 

(relief map of the united states.) 

T. — To-day we will study the surface of the western division of 
the United States; all that part lying west of the Mississippi Vallej'. 
What do we learn from the looks of this map about this division? 

P. — It is the highest and most mountainous division of the United 
States. 

T. — How many great mountain systems does the map show in 
this western part of our country ? 

p._Two. 

T. — Yes. How would you describe their position? 

P. — One system borders on the Mississippi Valley and the other 
borders on the Pacific Coast. 

T. — This large mountain system lying next to the Mississippi 
Valley is called the Rocky Mountains. What is their general direc- 
tion ? 

P. — Nearly north and south, 

T. — This system along the coast is called in the northern part 
the Cascade Mountains, and in the southern part the Sierra Nevada 
Mountains. Which of these two great mountain systems is, upon 
the whole, the highest? 

P. — The Rocky Mountains. 

T. — Right. It is the highest mountain system in the Western 
Hemisphere. But the highest point in our whole country is here in 
the Sierra Nevada Mountains. (Highest point in California.) This 
is Mt. Whitney, nearly 15,000 ft., or two and three-fourths miles 
high. These high mountains are covered at their tops with snow^, 
the whole year round. The map shows this nicely. This vs^hite color 
on these mountain tops represents snow. 

The mountain peak which is next in height to Mt. Whitney is 
Mt. Shasta. Here it is. (At the head of the great valley in the 
northern part of California.) 

The highest peak in the Rocky Mountains in the United States, 
is Long's Peak. Here it is. (Most northern peak in Colorado.) 

The next highest point of the Rocky Mountains in the United 
States, is Pike's Peak. (Mosf easterly peak in Colorado.) 



(71) 



EXERCISE LV. 

(relief map of the united states.) 

T. — Besides these two great mountain systems in the western 
division of the United States, of which we learned yesterday, there are 
so many other interesting things to be studied about this wonderful 
section of our country, that we will have one more exercise on this 
map to-day. What is the name of the largest mountain system ?- 

P. — The Rocky Mountains. 

T. — What is the name of the highest point of the Rocky Mount- 
ains ? 

P.— Long's Peak. 

T. — And the next highest ? 

P.— Pike's Peak. (Point them out carefully.) 

T. — What are these mountains near the coast called in the north- 
•ern part? 

P. — The Cascade Mountains. 

T. — In the southern part ? 

P. — The Sierra Nevada Mountains. 

T. — And what is the highest mountain in the United States 
called ? 

P.— Mt. Whitney. 

T.— And this next highest? 

P.— Mt. Shasta. 

T. — Now I wish you would notice these mountains (extending 
through Utah) at some distance west of the Rocky Mountains. 
These are called the Wahsatch Mountains. This portion of the 
country lying here between these mountains is called the Great Colo- 
rado Plateau, Now we learned sometime ago what a plateau is. Do 
any of you remember what it is? Hands up. Nellie, what is a 
Plateau ? 

Nellie. — It is a high plain. 

T. — Yes. That means that while it is generally level it is still 
very much higher than the ocean surface. This great plateau is over 
6,000 feet above the sea level. It takes its name from this large river 
which gathers its waters from this plateau. This is the Colorado 
River which empties into this Gulf of California. This river has cut 
a very deep channel called a Canon, (can-yun), through the rocks of 
this plateau. At some places the rocky walls on the sides of this 
river are thousands of feet high, making some of the most wonderful 
scenery in the world. This large section of the country lying be- 

(72) 



tvveen the Wahsatch Mountains and the Sierra Nevada Mountains is 
called the Great Basin. This is another great plateau nearly 5,000 ft. 
high. Here in the north-eastern corner of this great basin is the Great 
Salt Lake. It is so called because its water is quite salty. Does the 
map show anything peculiar about this lake? (Lead them to see, if 
possible, that this lake has no communication with the ocean.) 

T. — Do you see any other large river in this division of the Uni- 
ted States? 

P. — There is a large river in the northern part. 

T. — In what direction does it flow? 

P. — The main part of it flows west. 

T. — And empties into what? 

P. — The Pacific Ocean. 

T. — It is called the Columbia River. It gathers its tributaries, 
as you see, from the far north. Here it is joined by the Snake River 
which gathers the water from the mountain side farther south. What 
iiame would you give to this land lying along this large river between 
these mountains? 

P. — The Columbia River Valley. 

T. — Very good. That is what it is called. Now here (Sacra- 
mento Valley) is another interesting valley. This is the Sacramento 
River flowing down through this valley, and here it empties into the 
ocean. Here it is joined by the San Joaquin River (San Hoahkeen) 
which flows north through this part of this great valley. So this 
valley has two names. What do you suppose these names to be? 

P. — The northern part should be called the Sacramento Valley 
and the southern part the San Joaquin Valley. 

T. — That is correct. 



MAP MOLDING IN SAND OR CLAY. 

In connection with the exercises on the " Relief Map of the 
United States," the teacher is advised to assign to the pupils, as exer- 
cises, the molding of the States in outline and relief form, in sand, 
clay or j^utty. The scale of such work may be chosen by the teacher 
according to convenience. A smooth, flat board, of square shape, 
with a suitable marginal rim, or a tin tray, will serve very well for a 
molding board. If the surface of the board or tray is painted a light 
blue color, it will, when necessary, nicely represent the sea or other 
water bodies. If a good quality of clay can be had it will be found 
to be better than sand. Clay bricks, finely adapted to the purpose, 

(73) 



can be bought in many jolaces. The blue clay "which is often found 
in digging wells is also convenient for molding. 

Whether clay or sand be used, a little practice on the part of the 
teacher will show the degree of wetting necessary to bring the mate- 
rial used into the proper plastic condition. For permanent forms or 
maps, putty is the best material. 

The pupils will much enjoy this work, and they should be 
encouraged to vie with each other in attaining the most accurate 
results. Special attention should be paid to the surface character 
(topography) of the State in which the pupils live. If nothing more 
can be undertaken, such State, at least, should be practically engraved 
on each pupil's mind, by the molding exercise above recommended. 
The " Relief Map " will, of course, furnish the patterns of the 
States, to be enlarged according to pleasure. 

Molding work will also be found very interesting and profitable in 
connection with the study of the Natural Divisions of Land and 
Water, as laid down in the Elementary Exercises lo to 14. Let the 
pupils fashion ideal mountains, and mountain ranges. A little chalk 
or flour will nicely help to complete the representation of snow- 
capped peaks. Islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, capes, bays, gulfs, lakes^ 
and rivers, can all be beautifully molded by the pupils. Nothing will 
more effectively wake up enthusiasm, and dispel the inalaria of dull 
monotony from the school room than such practical work as here pro- 
posed. 



EXERCISE LVI. 

[It is suggested that this exercise be made a review of the five 
preceding exercises on the Relief Map of the United States, as these 
are among the most important lessons of the whole course,] 



EXERCISE LVII. 

(MAP OF NORTH AMERICA.) 

THE UNITED STATES. 

T. — The United States are composed of thirty-eight States, ten 
Territories and the District of Columbia. The District of Columbia 
is only a small area situated here. (Between Maryland and Virginia.) 
It contains the capital of the United States. How many of you can 
name it? 

(74) 



p.— Washington. (Point it out.) 

T. — We will divide the states and territories of the United States 
into the same three divisions which we found when we studied the 
surface of the country. We will first learn the Eastern States, then 
the Central or Mississippi Valle}-- States, and then the Western States. 

George, as I point out these States and give you their names you 
may write them on the blackboard. Please write at the head: East- 
ern States. We will now learn these States in proper order, begin- 
ning at the most north-eastern corner of the country: Maine, Xew 
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, V^ir- 
ginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Ala- 
bama and Florida. George, how many Eastern Stales does that 
make? 

Georcre, — Eighteen. 

T. — Correct. Eighteen Eastern States. (These must be care- 
fully committed to memory.) Now, Edward, you may write the 
names of the Central States as I point them out and name them: 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Kentucky, Missouri, 
Iowa, Minnesota, Dakota Territory, Nebraska, Kansas, Tennessee, 
Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas and Indian Territory. Ed- 
ward, how many Central States and Territories does that make? 

Edxvard. — Eighteen. 

T. — Right. Eighteen Central States and Territories. Mattie, 
will you please write the names of the Western States and Territo- 
ries as we learn them? Montana Territory, Wyoming Territory, 
Colorado, New Mexico Territory, Idaho Territory, Utah Territory, 
Arizona Territory, Nevada, California, Oregon, Washington Terri- 
tory and Alaska Territory. (Here point out the distant location of 
Alaska and explain that that country was lately bought by the Uni- 
ted States.) 

Mattie, how many Western States and Territories? 

Alattie. — Twelve. 

T. — Now how many States and Territories does that make in all ? 

P. — Forty-eight. 

T. — And how many are States? 

P.— Thirty-eight. 

T. — And how many Territories? 

P.— Ten. 

(Now assign to your pupils the special task of committing to 
memory, in proper order, the names of these States and Territories, 
for recitation at the next exercise.) 

(75) 



EXERCISE LVIII. 

(map of north AMERICA.) 

THE UNITED STATES. 

(Let the pupils first recite the names of the States and Territories 
as directed to be learned at the last exercise.) 

T. — What is the chief officer of the United States called? 

P. — The President. 

T. — The second officer is the Vice-President. The President 
and Vice-President are elected every four years by the. people. The 
laws for the whole country are made by Congress. There are two 
houses of Congress, — first, the Senate, composed of two Senatoi's 
from each State; second, the House of Representatives, composed of 
a number of Representatives from each State according to the popu- 
lation. Each Territory has also one member in the House of Rep- 
resentatives; but he has no vote. 

Now let us learn about the government of a State. Each State 
has also its separate government. Can you tell me what its chief 
officer is called? 

P. — The Governor. 

T. — Can you name the Governor of this State? The laws of a 
State are made by a Legislature, which is patterned after the Congress 
of the United States, in being composed of a Senate and a House of 
Representatives. The Governors of the States are elected by the 
people. The Governor of a Territory is appointed by the President 
of the United States. Each State has its capital where its Governor 
resides and its Legislature meets. 

There are nearly 50,000,000 people in the United States. All 
the four great races are found in this country. By far. the largest 
part of these are Caucasian whites — English, German and Irish. 
The Negroes, have, until lately, mostly lived in the southern part of 
the United States. The Indians live in the western part. The Mon- 
golian race is rej^resented by Chinese and Japanese. 

Note. — The study of the separate States is now in order and very important. Each State 
and Territory will furnish an interesting lesson. It is however not thought necessary to outline 
an Exercise in this Manual for each State. Instead of this, we will furnish, first, an outline of 
facts for the convenience of the teacher; second, a series of questions of general application and 
designed to constitute an exercise; third, an outline form to be constructed as a completion of each 
exercise. Such outlines of facts pertaining to each State, should by all means be copied by the 
pupils into their " Geographical Note Books." 

(76) 







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(79^ 



EXERCISE LIX. 



NoTB. — By the help of the foreg-oing outlines, the teacher will be able to present the leadins^ 
facts, pertaining to the several States, in oral lessons, to ttie pupils. Only such portions of work 
should be undertaken for each exercise as can be thoroughly done. Oral instruction requires, first, 
simplicity ^nA clearness oi. statement; second, repetition oi. such statements; '(KvcA, drawing out 
from the pupils, by well chosen questions, that which has been drilled into their minds as information. 
Perhaps, generally, the study of one state will be sufficient for one exercise, especially if any map 
drawing or additional special facts of interest are included in the lesson. Present the facts in as 
interesting a manner as possible. Gather information wherever you can for this purpose. For 
example, in teaching your pupils that lumbering is one of the chief occupations of the people of 
Maine, tell them that the hardy lumbermen pass the winters in the great pine forests, cutting down 
trees and drawing the logs on sleds to the banks of the rivers. In the spring they float them down 
stream in rafts to the saw-mills to be sawed into lumber. 

The f ollo\ving set of questions is proposed as indicating what the pupils ought to know at 
the close of a lesson on any state: 

How is this State bounded? 

To which of the three divisions of the States does it belong.'' 

What is its capital? 

How is the capital situated ? 

(In what part of the State? If on an important river, what river?) 

What is the largest city or metropolis ? 

How situated? 

What are the chief rivers ? ~. ' 

What mountains are in this State? 

In what industries are the people of this State chiefly engaged? 

What are its chief products? 

(Add questions "on other points of interest" according to the information which you 
have given. For instance, if you have told them jf the large forests of pine trees in Maine, an 
answer to the question why Maine should be called the "Pine Tree State," may be reasonably ex- 
pected. 



(80) 



NAME OF STATE. 





North? 






East? 




Bounded? 


South?. 






West?. 












What? 




Capital? 


Where? 












What? 




Largest City ? 


Where? 












What? 




Chief Rivers? 


Where? 






Direction of Flow? 








Mountains?. . 


What? 




Where?.. 










Chief Industries? 








Chief Products?... 








Other Points of In- 




terest? 











ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 



It is suggested that the teacher give the pupils, at this point, a few 
lessons on the distribution of the larger forms of animal life through- 
out the world. Believing that the teacher will, at this stage, have 
acquired considerable skill and confidence in conducting these oral 
exercises and object lessons, it is considered unnecessary to suggest 
more on the proposed lessons on animal life on the land, than the use 
of the special maps on " Products and Animals," found in the lower 
right hand corner of each map of the Hemispheres. The occurrence 
of the more prominent animals being clearly represented there, the 

« (81) 



teacher can easily prepare and conduct as many exercises on this sub- 
ject as may be thought best. It may be well to give from the ma^) 
referred to, an exercise on the animal life of each grand division, dis- 
cussing w^ith the pupils, in a familiar v\^ay the most important animals, 
in respect to what articles of usefulness they furnish to man, and 
whether of a peaceable or ferocious nature. 

The above suggestions will also indicate the course which the 
teacher may pursue in giving the pvipils, fi'om the same maps, some 
lessons on the occurrence of vegetable life throughout the world — or 
where the various grains, fruits, useful plants and chief timber trees 
abound. 



EXERCISE LX. 

ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEA. 

Following the proposed exercises on the more important animah 
and plants on the land, several interesting lessons can be taught the 
pupils from the chart representing ocean life. This chart presents a 
most fascinating view of many of the more wonderful creatures of the 
sea. It will not be difficult to interest the pupils while giving them 
instruction with such illustrations before them. These exercises should 
be very simple and conversational in form. They need not be here 
outlined in detail. But such hints as to the order best to be pursued, 
and such information in reference to the animals represented, as may 
be helpful to the teacher, will be given in as compact a manner as 
possible. 

With the chart before them, call the attention of the pupils to the 
strange and beautiful forms of water animals which it shows. Here 
are many kinds of animals which they have never seen. Some look 
more like plants than animals. Ask the pupils to name some or all of 
the various water animals which they have seen. Speak of the adap- 
tation of their fins or feet for swimming. The great ocean has in it 
many kinds of animals not found in rivers and lakes. The water of 
the ocean has a salty taste. The water of rivers and lakes is fresh. 
Some water animals can live only in ocean water. Some can only 
live in the fresh water of streams and lakes. All the animals shown 
on the chart live in the ocean. 

(82) 



Fishes. Ask the pupils to name the most familiar or well 
known animals which they see on the chart. They will speak of the 
fishes. Talk with them familiarly about the structure of a fish. Its 
boat-shaped body, just the thing for easy swimming. Its fins, like the 
paddles of a boat. Its tail, like a rudder. Its gills, Instead of lungs 
for breathing. Lays eggs from which the young fish come in great 
numbers. There are thousands of kinds of fishes. What kinds do 
the pupils know? They range in size from small ones which never 
grow larger than a minnow, to great sharks, longer than the width of 
a street, and easily able to swallow a man. The chart shows only a 
few of the more curious forms of fishes. Call attention to the reef 
fish (3), the goat fish (8), the coral fish (15), the more common perches 
(17), the snout-fish (21), the angel fish (29), which is said to shoot in- 
sects from bushes with a drop of water shot from its mouth, and the 
monster shark. (30.) 

W^hales. Ask the pupils whether they can name the largest 
animal that lives in the water. Some of them most likely will men- 
tion the whale. Figure 4 shows a whale spouting the moisture of its 
breath to a great height. Some whales are over 100 feet long. They 
furnish us whale-bone and oil. A whale is not a fish. 

Crabs and Lobsters. Figure 19 shows an ocean crab. Some 
of the pupils ma}^ have seen, at fish stores, the large lobsters which 
when boiled are quite red. Crabs and lobsters are highly prized for 
food. 

Cuttle Fishes or Devil Fishes. Figures 12, 13 and 14 repre- 
sent a very strange kind of animal. They belong to a class called 
Cephalopods, a word meaning having feet or arms about the head. 
The animal shown in Fig. 12 is often called "The Fairy Sailor," 
because it has a very delicate boat-like shell on which it seems to rest 
and float along in a very gay manner. Figs. 13 and 14 represent cut- 
tle fishes. They are very powerful animals and are much feared by 
some other creatures of the sea. They have the strange habit of 
throwing out a dark ink from their body as they swim along. This 
blackens the water behind them so that they cannot be seen by any 
larger animal which might pursue them. The pupils have perhaps 
all seen the cuttle-bone which is fed to canaries. This comes from the 
bodies of cuttle fishes. 

Sea Cucumbers. These animals (16 and 23) are so called because 
they look very much like a rough, prickly cucumber. The Chinese 
use them for soup. 

(83) 



Jelly Fishes. These creatures (9, 10, 11,) are called Jelly Fishes 
because they are composed mostly of a jelly-like substance. They 
are also called Sea Nettles because when handled they produce a 
stinging sensation. They sail along the water, under their umbrella- 
like covers, in great numbers, as shown in the picture. Bathers are 
very much afraid of these creatures because of the severe lashing they 
are liable to give one with their long whip-like arms. 

Sea Anemones. Figures 25 and 28 represent Sea Anemones. 
These animals seem to live on the top of a stem, the bottom of which 
they can fasten to a rock or any other hard body. Their feather-like 
tops are composed of many fine, nicely colored lashes, called tentacles. 
With these they catch crabs and other animals with wonderful 
rapidity. 

Sea Worms. These most beautiful creatures (22) are called 
Serpulje. They build stony houses, and wear crown-like head fringes 
which are magnificently colored. They have also the strange power 
of giving out light to illuminate the sea. 

Corals. There are many kinds of coral shown on the chart. 
See Figs. 5 (on both sides of plate), 20, 26. Some of these are exceed- 
ingly beautiful in form, branching out in exact imitation of the 
branches of trees. Some are called Sea-Fans, because they are shaped 
like a fan. Others are beautifully colored. These coral forms, as 
shown, are really only the branches of limestone and other matei^ial 
on which the tiny little coral builders, called polyps, grow. These 
branches or stalks are built by them from the material which they 
gather (secrete) from the water of the ocean. In this way, some kinds 
of corals build up large islands, and make large additions to countries, 
as for instance, a large part of the State of Florida was added to the 
United States by these coral creatures. 

Sponges. Probably all of the pupils have seen a sponge. 
Bring one before them if possible. Our common sponges are really 
the skeletons of the sponge animals. In their living condition, sponges 
are large masses of jelly-like matter, which is gathered around and 
through this skeleton material which we call sponge. Most of our 
sponges come from the Mediterranean Sea, where many men are 
engaged in fishing for them. The chart shows a sponge-fishing 
scene. Long poles with barbed prongs at the end, are used to 
"spear" the sponges. 

(84) 



PART II. 

SUPPLEMENTAL SUGGESTIONS. 

The following suggestions are designed to be helpful to teachers 
using the Study in illustration of lessons recited by the pupils from 
text-books. It is scarcely necessary to say to the intelligent teacher, 
that scarcely a lesson will occur, for which there may not be found, 
on the maps and diagrams of the Study, some valuable illustrative 
information. 

Though the exercises proposed in the first part of this Manual 
are elementary in their character, and not intended to be used, as pre- 
scribed, in connection with a text-book recitation, yet the teacher 
of advanced classes will find it beneficial to read over carefully those 
exercises as they correspond with the subject of the lesson in hand 
from the text-book. 



THE TITLE PLATE FIGURE. 

With classes pursuing the study of Geography from text-books, 
use the Title Plate Figure of the Study at every step, to illustrate 
the descriptions of the Earth's form, motions and dimensions. Also 
to illustrate the definitions of Diameter, Circumference, Axis, Poles, 
Equator, Meridians, Longitude, Latitude, Tropics, Polar Circles and 
Zones. Such a practical drill on these geographical conceptions, with 
the Chart before the class, will more thoroughly fix these important 
principles in the minds of the pupils, than any amount of bare mem- 
ory work on statements in the book without objective illustration. 



THE CAUSE OF DAY AND NIGHT. 

The suggestions for an elementary drill on " Da}' and Night," as 
given in Exercise IV, will be helpful to the teacher in the regular 
recitation on the subject. 

(85) 



If you have learned the art of making novel expedients or meth- 
ods contribute to the enthusiasm of your pupils, and the success of 
your work, you may observe that the illustration of this important 
subject on some evenings using a lamp behind the Study, w^ill intensify 
the interest. Or, if an evening exercise is impracticable, give your 
pupils something to think about, talk about and enjoy^ by curtaining 
your window^s at day time^ and using a lamp as above suggested, for 
the convenience and success of this instructive exercise. It will pay 
for all the " trouble " it will cost. 

Do not fail to notice that the graduated hour-margin around the 
" Day and Night " figure, will be just the thing you need to illustrate 
"Comparative Time." Put your jDupils forward as much as possible 
by permitting one or more of them to perform the inovements which 
illustriate the facts. 



- THE CHANGE OF SEASONS. 

Move some ball, (representing the earth) around some central 
object, (representing the sun.) The earth's path is called its Orbit. 
Just as the ruts in a race-track, worn by the wagons, ai'e orbits of the 
wheels. The plane of this orbit is the Hcliptic. (Give your pupils 
as good an idea as possible of the plane of the earth's orbit.) For 
young minds, it is a somewhat difficult conception, but it is important. 
Having steadily moved the ball above suggested around the central 
object, having it well understood that the former is to represent the 
Earth and the latter the Sun, it may be best to say: If we could pass 
a stiff card board through the center of this body, (the Sun,) and let 
it extend so that its surface would come all around to the path of the 
center of this ball, (the Earth,) then the surface of this card board 
would represent the plane of the ecliptic of the earth's orbit. 

Now the earth's axis does not stand perpendicular to the plane of 
its path. (Illustrate with the objects referred to. A darning needle 
stuck through the center of a woolen ball to represent the earth and 
axis, will help you admirably.) Neither does the earth's axis lie par- 
allel with this plane like this. (Turn your ball so that its axis lies flat 
with the plane.) It stands obliquely like this. (Incline your ball so 
that its axis will lean away from the perpendicular 66y^ degrees — a 
little more than ^ down towards the flat or parallel position.) This 
is called the obliquity of the ecliptic, and this, with the revolution of 
the earth around the sun, is the chief cause of the change of seasons, 
as this figure, (refer to the movable diagram on Study illustrating 

(86) 



" Change of Seasons,") will nicely illustrate to us. (Now follow the 
movements on the diagram as suggested in elementary Exercise V, to 
illustrate the changes of relation between the surface of the earth, 
and the vertical or direct rays of the sun in the course of a year.) 

Now let us see how it would be if the axis of the earth were 
perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic like this. (Put your earth- 
ball again into the required position, and move it around your central 
sun.) Notice, here, that in this case the sun would always shine 
directly on the earth's equator. See how nicely this is shown here. 
(Refer to diagram putting the sun in middle position right over the 
equator.) This white line which passes from the sun towards the 
earth may show one of its rays. You see it falls directly or vertically 
on the equator. What do you notice about the direction of the sun's 
rays on the two hemispheres? 

P. — They slant equally on the north and south hemispheres. 

T. — Now, if this were the case the whole year round, what about 
the seasons? 

P. — There would be no change of seasons, and the northern and 
southern hemispheres would always be equally under the influence of 
the sun. 

T. — Now we see that these circles of rotation, (point out the par- 
allels) are every where half in the light and half in the dark. This 
clearly shows that the days and nights would always be equal all over 
the earth, as they now really are only twice a year; namely, on the 
3istof March, and the 3lst of Sejotember. However, the earth's axis 
is not perpendicular to its path, but it is, as we have learned, inclined 
66l;4 degrees from the perpendicular. On this account, after the 21st 
of March, the sun moves northward like this. (Move sun figure 
slowly about half way between equator and " summer solstice " line.) 
Here we see that now the circles of revolution (parallels) in the 
northern hemisphere are more in the light than in the dark. That is, 
the days are now longer than the nights. In the southern hemisphere, 
}-ou see, the reverse is true. The parallels are here more in the dark 
than in the light. The days are shorter than the nights. But the 
equator is still half in the light and half in the dark. So here the 
days and nights are still equal — each 12 hours long. On the 21st of 
June the sun has got as far north as the Tropic of Cancer. (Move it 
to the " solstice " line.) Now this shows us that the parallels are still 
moi;e in the light compared with the dark. So the days are now still 
longer than the nights in the northern hemisphere. (Call your pupils' 
attention again to theequator, and draw the conclusion that here the days 
are always equal in length to the nights.) We see also that at this 

(87) 



time the farther a place is from the equator the greater is the difference 
between the length of day and night. (Bring the sun figure back to 
the equator.) How far north and south on the earth does the sun 
now shine? 

P. — To the poles. 

T. — Now notice the north pole as the sun moves north again. 
(Move the sun up a short distance.) What do you observe? 

P. — The north pole has come farther into the light. 

T. — Now I will move it to its farthest point north. What do 
you observe about the north pole? 

P. — It is still farther in the light. 

T. — And the south pole? 

P. — It is just as far in the dark. 

T. — Now note carefully what appears at the pole when the sun 
moves south again to the equator. (Move sun slowly to the equator.) 
The pole moves back to the day and night line. When the sun has 
got back to the equator, both poles are back again to where they were 
on the 2 1st of March. But from the 21st of March when the sun 
started northward here, (locate) to the 21st of June, when it was here, 
(move sun figure to illustrate) and then on the 21st of September, 
when it got back here, (equator) is how long a time? 

P. — Six months. 

T. — Correct. And what is our conclusion ? 

P. — At the poles the days and nights are six months long, so that 
there is but one day and one night there in a year. (Now illustrate, 
or if possible, let one of your pupils illustrate, the movement of the 
sun south of the equator, and the consequent conditions of seasons, and 
day and night, in both hemispheres.) 



DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATER. 

Besides the suggestions given in Exercise VII, to illustrate "Dis- 
tribution of Land and Water," refer your class to the maps on upper 
corners above " Map of Western Hemisphere." These show how a 
great division's circle can be passed around our globe so that nearly all 
the land will lie in the hemisphere on the north of this circle, ^snd 
nearly all the water on the south of it. 



NATURAL DIVISIONS OF LAND AND WATER. 

After your pupils have learned and recited the definitions of the 
natural divisions of land and water as given in their books, use the 
first chart in the "Study" on "Physical Geography" to illustrate the 
definitions. As a closing exercise for such a recitation, test the abilitv 
of the class to recognize quickly the various forms as you point them 
out rapidly on the chart. 



MAP STUDY. 

In reference to the use of the Study in connection with the reci- 
tation of lessons on the maps, it will here be sufficient to call the 
teacher's attention to the fact that these maps will be found to be 
adapted to the illustration of any such lessons j^rescribed in any of the 
text books in general use. Besides, the map in this Study, being 
bright and clear in design and representation, will attract the eye and 
attention of the pupils directly to the subject to which reference is 
made. It is scarcely necessary to suggest to the thoughtful teacher, 
that the pupils, in turn, should be required to point out and trace the 
objects on the map as they come up in the recitation. 



ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 

For the illustration of references to Land Animals and Plants, see 
the suggestions preceding Exercise LX in Elementary Course. 

For the illustration of references to Sea Life, the information 
given in Elementary Exercise LX will be helpful to you. 



THE GEOLOGICAL CHART. 

The representations on the Geological Chart are so self-explana- 
tory, that the teacher will find no difficulty in using it, either for the 
illustration of such geological references as occur in geography, or for 
giving the pupils special oral lessons on the facts and principles of 
geology which the chart illustrates. 

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CHART OF THE HEAVENS. 

This Chart represents the constellations or star-groups of the 
heavens. On the outside of the central diagram the stars are repre- 
sented and the names and boundary lines of the constellations are 
shown. The " Milky Way " is also represented. The center of the 
plate, with reference to the star-groups, locates the North Pole of the 
sky. (For convenience in representing the " Planetary System" on 
the same plate; the Sun is located here.) The red circle represents the 
Equinoctial, or Equator of the Heavens. The yellow circle is the 
Ecliptic, cutting the Equinoctial at an angle of 231^ degress. The 
inner view or diagram shows the mythological view of the constella- 
tions. By means of this, in connection with the view of the star- 
groups on the outer plate, the constellations can be found and learned^ 
On the margin of the black stationary disc the hours and minutes of 
the day are indicated. On the inner movable disc are the months and 
days of the year. Now if you wish to know what constellations of 
the heavens are in view, and where they are, at any time, turn the 
movable disc until the day for which the observation is made is 
brought directly opposite or against the hour or minute required. 
You will then see what constellations are above the horizon or visible 
at that time, also which of them are just setting, (at right hand side) 
which are declining towards the west, which are crossing the merid- 
ian, and which are rising in the east (left hand side). It also shows 
you which constellations do not disappeer from view (set) during an 
entire revolution representing 24 hours. These are called Circumpo- 
lar Constellations. 



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